Studies have reported alarmingly high rates of traumatic experiences for refugee populations. While nearly all refugees experienced trauma in their country of origin, a vast majority of those seeking protection abroad also face (extreme) violence during their journeys and once in the country of destination. By concentrating on the migratory experiences of about 300 unaccompanied minors that we approached in Libya, Italy, Greece, and Belgium, this article analyses how different forms of violence are inflicted on these young migrants while moving to Europe. By concentrating on personal accounts of (recurrent) interactions with the EU migration and border management tools, we reveal the structural violence within the day-to-day governance of migration. Often framed as unintended or accidental, the article discusses how violence is instead ubiquitous, as it is systematically inflicted on migrants—including unaccompanied minors—in the form of repeated series of violent events or “loops of violence.” Importantly, such manifestations of violence are perpetrated by key institutional and non-institutional actors in the “migration industry” who are (in)directly involved in managing migration both inside and outside of the EU. Conceptually, we rely on K. E. Dempsey’s political geography of the different typologies of violence within Europe’s governance of migration and asylum and use it to concentrate on key transitional phases/fractures in migratory trajectories—i.e., as unaccompanied young migrants (try to) cross international borders and legal boundaries.

Background Unaccompanied young refugees constitute an especially vulnerable population, reporting high rates of trauma and mental health problems. There is a significant gap in the literature on trauma and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) in unaccompanied young refugees who are still on the move and live in precarious circumstances such as refugee camps. This study therefore aimed to contribute to this gap by investigating pre- and peri-migration (potentially) traumatic experiences of unaccompanied young refugees; longitudinal trajectories of trauma, daily stressors and PTSS; and the impact of gender, trauma, and daily stressors on PTSS over time. Methods This longitudinal, mixed-method, and multi-country study was conducted in various settings (e.g. refugee camps, reception centers) across nine European countries. A heterogeneous sample of N = 187 unaccompanied young refugees (78.4% male) from 29 different countries was assessed via interviews at 3 time-points during a period of 27 months. Data was analyzed via growth curve modelling. Results Prevalence rates of (potentially) traumatic experiences ranged from 29.5 to 91.9%. Peri-migration traumatization remained stable over time (b = − 0.02; p = 0.371), but the number of reported daily stressors (b = − 0.24; p = 0.001) and PTSS scores significantly decreased over time (b = − 0.98; p = 0.004). Females reported higher PTSS compared with males at baseline (p = 0.002), but gender did not influence the longitudinal trajectory of PTSS. The pre-migration trauma load and daily stressors at baseline did not have a significant effect on PTSS at baseline or on the longitudinal trajectory. Conclusions This is the first study to document not only the high numbers of traumatic events for unaccompanied young refugees pre- and peri- migration, but also the continued traumatization during flight, as well as high rates of daily stressors and PTSS. Humanitarian and political assistance is urgently needed to curb the often life-threatening conditions unaccompanied young refugees face during migration.

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IntroductionThere is growing recognition that daily stressors, such as social and material deficiencies, can be highly detrimental to the mental health of refugees. These stressors are in addition to stressful life events, which have been widely studied in the context of migration and forced displacement. Despite increasing evidence for an ecological model, there is still no consensus regarding the conceptualization of these highly influential factors. In particular, the demarcation of daily stressors from stressful life events and the categorization of daily stressors require further examination in order to develop usable and accurate tools for researchers, design effective interventions for practitioners and assist politicians in designing meaningful policies.MethodsTo address these challenges, we used data from a sample of 392 unaccompanied young refugees from diverse backgrounds and employed network analysis to examine the relationships between daily stressors, stressful life events, and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress.ResultsOur findings highlight the significant relationship between daily stressors and mental health, particularly depression. Meaningful clusters of daily stressors include material stressors, social stressors, and social exclusion stressors.ConclusionOur results demonstrate the importance of considering daily stressors in the mental health of refugees and suggest that using a network approach offers a viable way to study these complex interrelationships. These findings have implications for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in understanding and addressing the mental health needs of refugees.

This article explores unaccompanied adolescent minors’ (UAMs) experiences of deterrent practices at internal EU borders while being on the move. Previous studies have acknowledged the securitisation of external borders through gatekeeping and fencing practices; however, there is a recent and continued renationalisation of internal EU borders by the member states. Like other migrants who are travelling irregularly, UAMs also often face harsh living conditions and repeated rights violations in border areas, regardless of their specific rights to protection and psychological needs. Research has called for a renewed focus on migrant children’s experiences as active agents at the borders, but until now studies exploring UAMs’ experiences at internal EU borders remain scarce. Drawing on Agamben’s notion of “legal exception,” we seek to explore how deterrent practices are confusingly intertwined and affect UAMs’ psychological wellbeing and subjectivities in the Ventimiglia border space. Participant observations and in-depth interviews conducted with UAMs at the French-Italian border provide unique insights into how these bordering practices affect migrant children’s legal and psychological safety and reshape their subjectivities. This contribution highlights UAMs’ conflicting needs and feelings of institutional “abandonment” when left without institutional welfare protection in the border space, on the one hand, and feeling pressured to act responsibly towards their relatives, on the other.

The notion of waiting has always been part of the migration procedure, also for unaccompanied refugee minors. During their journeys throughout the EU, some unaccompanied minors obtain a definitive residence status, while others become undocumented after their temporary protection ends at age 18 or they are still waiting for the outcome of their asylum application. In this article, we focus on the meaning of 'waiting' for 14 unaccompanied refugee minors and how this chronic state of waiting impacts their well-being and access to services. This 'existential' form of waiting shows how these young people are de facto caught in between EUand national legislations, in a 'politics of exhaustion', where they find themselves somehow stuck in a perennial limbo where movement is nothing but an illusion. ΠερίληψηΗ έννοια της αναμονής ήταν πάντα μέρος της διαδικασίας μετανάστευσης και οι ασυνόδευτοι ανήλικοι πρόσwυγες δεν θα μπορούσαν να αποτελέσουν εξαίρεση. Κατά τη διάρκεια των διαδρομών τους στην ΕΕ, ορισμένοι αποκτούν μόνιμο νομικό καθεστώς, πολλοί καθίστανται χωρίς έγγραwα μετά τη λήξη της προσωρινής τους προστασίας σε ηλικία 18 ετών ή περιμένουν για χρόνια το αποτέλεσμα των αιτήσεων ασύλου τους. Στο άρθρο αυτό εξετάζουμε πως οι ασυνόδευτοι ανήλικοι αντιμετωπίζουν αυτήν την αναμονή και πως αυτή η χρόνια κατάσταση επηρεάζει την πρόσβαση τους σε υπηρεσίας και αγαθά, σημαντικά ως προς την ευημερία τους. Στα συμπεράσματα συζητάμε για το πώς οι ασυνόδευτοι ανήλικοι βρίσκονται συχνά μεταξύ σwύρας και άκμονος, μεταξύ Ευρωπαϊκών και Εθνικών νομοθεσιών μετανάστευσης και ασύλου και τι επιπτώσεις έχει αυτή η αναμονή στην ψυχική τους υγεία. Ακόμα και όταν μετακινούνται, η διαρκής κατάσταση νομικού κενού τους οδηγεί σε ένα wαύλο κύκλο, σαν να μην ξεκίνησαν ποτέ.

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