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Spin crossover complexes containing 3d4-3d7 transition metal ions with tunable electronic configurations in appropriate ligand field environments are extensively investigated. On the contrary, the development of 3d8 divalent nickel displaying...

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There has been growing and recent interest in using non-edible feedstocks such as waste animal fats as alternate to vegetable oils in biodiesel production to address food vs fuel debate. The waste animal fats are cost effective and yield the biodiesel of good quality. Therefore, waste animal fats are appealing and excellent feedstocks to produce biodiesel. Commercially, the biodiesel is obtained by transesterification reaction of triglycerides present in oil/fat with alcohol in presence of homogeneous base catalysts. However, free fatty acids found in low-quality oil feedstocks are particularly sensitive to homogeneous base catalysts, necessitating extra acid pretreatment and neutralization procedures that not only raise the overall expense of producing biodiesel but also create environmental contamination. Optimistically, the use of solid catalysts can offer an environmentally friendly, cost-effective, and practical route for the manufacture of biodiesel from inexpensive oil feedstocks, including waste animal fat. The present review article covers catalyzed transesterification/esterification using various catalysts with particular focus on use of heterogeneous catalysts when using waste animal fat as feedstock for biodiesel production. Particularly, the properties of biodiesel obtained from waste animal fats are also compared to biodiesel properties of standard organizations such as European Committee of Standardization and the American Society for Testing and Materials. Moreover, this paper also offers future research directions that can direct researchers to fill in knowledge gaps impeding the creation of efficient heterogeneous catalysts for long-term biodiesel generation. To the best of our knowledge, the valorization of waste animal fats from slaughterhouse is not feasible and have some techno-economic concerns. However, this technology is more desirable considering environmental point of view to address the pollution problems caused by these wastes.

The comparatively greater cost of producing biodiesel in comparison to petroleum diesel is one of the key drawbacks. Eggshells and leftover chicken fat are examples of poultry wastes that can be used to produce biodiesel at a low cost as catalysts and oil, respectively. In this study, eggshell-derived CaO and its doping with sodium methoxide catalyst for enhancing catalytic activity was synthesized for the transesterification of waste chicken fat and characterized by FT-IR and XRD analyses. XRD studies confirmed the crystalline structure of the developed catalyst and doping of sodium with eggshell-derived CaO. The transesterification reaction was performed at different reaction parameters such as the catalyst loading, the methanol to oil ratio, the reaction temperature, and the reaction time. The biodiesel produced at the maximum yield was evaluated by gas chromatography mass spectrometry analysis. A maximum yield of 96% biodiesel was obtained with catalyst loading of 2 wt% of oil, as well as a methanol to oil ratio of 13:1 at 60 °C in 1 h. The output demonstrates that eggshell waste is a potentially accessible source of biomass-derived nano catalyst for the synthesis of biodiesel using chicken fat as a feedstock.

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