Stool specimens from hospitalized infants with sporadic gastroenteritis in Chiang Mai, Thailand, between July 2000 and July 2001 were examined for norovirus and sapovirus by reverse transcription-PCR and sequence analysis. These viruses were identified in 13 of 105 (12%) specimens. One strain was found to be a recombinant norovirus

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Human adenovirus (HAdV) is known to be a common cause of diarrhea in children worldwide. Infection with adenovirus is responsible for 2–10% of diarrheic cases. To increase a better understanding of the prevalence and epidemiology of HAdV infection, a large scale and long-term study was needed. We implemented a multi-year molecular detection and characterization study of HAdV in association with acute gastroenteritis in Chiang Mai, Thailand from 2011 to 2017. Out of 2,312 patients, HAdV was detected in 165 cases (7.2%). The positive rate for HAdV infection was highest in children of 1 and 2 years of age compared to other age groups. HAdV subgroup C (40.6%) was the most prevalent, followed by subgroups F (28.5%), B (20.6%), A and D (4.8% each), and E (0.6%). Of these, HAdV-F41 (22.4%), HAdV-C2 (18.2%), HAdV-B3 (15.2%), and HAdV-C1 (13.3%) were the most common genotypes detected. HAdV infection occurred throughout the year with a higher detection rate between May and July. In conclusion, our study demonstrated the infection rate, seasonal distribution and genotype diversity of HAdV infection in children with diarrhea in Chiang Mai, Thailand over a period of 7 year. Not only enteric adenovirus (F40 and F41) but also non-enteric adenovirus (B3, C1, C2) may play an important role in gastroenteritis in this area. The information will be beneficial for the prevention and control of HAdV outbreaks in the future.

A novel and unusual strain of porcine rotavirus (PoRV) CMP034 was isolated from a 7-week-old piglet during the epidemiological survey of porcine rotavirus infection in Chiang Mai province, Thailand from June 2000 to July 2001. Molecular characterization of gene VP4 by sequence analysis showed a low level of amino acid sequence identity, ranging from 56.7% to 76.6%, while comparison of VP8* portion showed 41.8% to 69.9% identity, with the 26 P genotypes recognized to date. Phylogenetic analysis of the VP4 sequence revealed that CMP034 was only distantly related to the other 26 P genotypes and was located in a separate branch. Sequence analysis of gene VP7 showed the highest level of amino acid identity (94.7%) with the PoRV G2-like reference strain 34461-4 but a lower level of identity with those of human G2 rotaviruses, ranging from 87.7% to 88.0%. Phylogenetic analysis of gene VP7 revealed two major lineages among G2 rotavirus strains based on the host origin. PoRV strain CMP034 clustered exclusively with G2-like PoRV strain 34461-4 in a novel lineage that is distinct from the major G2 human lineage. Moreover, strain CMP034 displayed a porcine-like VP6 and NSP5/6 with subgroup I specificity, while bearing an NSP4 with some genetic group B human-like characteristics. These findings provide evidence that CMP034 should be considered as a novel VP4 genotype P[27].

We investigated the prevalence of virulent Rhodococcus equi in clinical isolates from 69 sporadic cases (60 men, 8 women, and 1 patient of unknown sex) in Chiang Mai, Thailand, between 1993 and 2001. Fifty were human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) positive, 3 were HIV negative, and HIV status was unknown for 16. Fifty-two (75%) of 69 isolates were strains of intermediate virulence that contained the virulence-associated 20-kDa antigen, and 17 isolates (25%) were avirulent. No virulent strains with the virulence-associated 15-17-kDa antigens were identified. R. equi was isolated from HIV-positive patients' houses and those of their neighbors: avirulent strains were widespread, but only 1 strain of intermediate virulence was isolated. R. equi strains of intermediate virulence were isolated from 4 (0.8%) of 500 submaxillary lymph nodes from apparently healthy pigs in Chiang Mai. The routes of R. equi acquisition should be investigated from the viewpoint of zoonosis and public health.

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An unusual strain of human rotavirus G3P[3] (CMH222), bearing simian-like VP7 and caprine-like VP4 genes, was isolated from a 2-year-old child patient during the epidemiological survey of rotavirus in Chiang Mai, Thailand in 2000-2001. The rotavirus strain was characterized by molecular analysis of its VP4, VP6, VP7, and NSP4 gene segments. The VP4 sequence of CMH222 shared the greatest homology with those of caprine P[3] (GRV strain) at 90.6% nucleotide and 96.4% amino acid sequence identities. Interestingly, the VP7 sequence revealed highest identity with those of simian G3 rotavirus (RRV strain) at 88% nucleotide and 98.1% amino acid sequence identities. In contrast, percent sequence identities of both the VP4 and VP7 genes were lower when compared with those of human rotavirus G3P[3] reference strains (Ro1845 and HCR3). Analyses of VP6 and NSP4 sequences showed a close relationship with simian VP6 SG I and caprine NSP4 genotype C, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis of VP4, VP6, VP7, and NSP4 genes of CMH222 revealed a common evolutionary lineage with simian and caprine rotavirus strains. These findings strongly suggest multiple interspecies transmission events of rotavirus strains among caprine, simian, and human in nature and provide convincing evidence that evolution of human rotaviruses is tightly intermingled with the evolution of animal rotaviruses.

Swine are economically important food animals, but highly contagious enteric viruses can affect entire swine herds and contribute significantly to piglet morbidity and mortality. The most frequent viruses associated with pig gastroenteritis have been reported as porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) and rotavirus. Rotavirus is an important cause of diarrhea in piglets and pigs worldwide, and group A and C types are those that pig herds are mostly affected by. In Thailand, studies on rotavirus group A (RVA) have been reported continuously, whereas information on group C is still limited. In this study, we aimed to identify rotavirus group C (RVC) from the feces and intestinal contents of pigs affected with diarrhea. Seven hundred and sixty-nine samples were collected from swine herds located in difference provinces throughout Thailand. The specimens were tested using virus-specific RT-PCR to detect the gene encoding RVC capsid protein VP7 and VP4. Sequencing analyses showed that 6.6% (51/769) of samples were positive for RVC, one third of which tested as single positive for RVC (34/51). Co-infections with the most frequent enteric viruses, RVA and PEDV were also analyzed. Co-infections of RVA/RVC accounted for 21.6% (11/51) of samples and of PEDV/RVC for 7.8% (4/51) of samples, while three samples (5.9%) tested positive for all three viruses. Infections were not associated with seasonality, since the virus was detected throughout the year. RVC was detected in pigs up to 8 weeks old. Analysis of the partial VP7 gene sequences was suggestive that the predominant genotype was G1, which was closely related to the prototype Cowden strain. Due to P[5] was the most prevalent of VP4 genotype. This study demonstrated the low prevalence of RVC in Thailand, a virus not previously documented in this country. PeerJ Preprints | https://doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.3515v1 | CC BY 4.0 Open Access | rec ABSTRACT 32 Swine are economically important food animals, but highly contagious enteric viruses 33 can affect entire swine herds and contribute significantly to piglet morbidity and mortality. The 34 most frequent viruses associated with pig gastroenteritis have been reported as porcine epidemic 35 diarrhea virus (PEDV) and rotavirus. Rotavirus is an important cause of diarrhea in piglets and 36 pigs worldwide, and group A and C types are those that pig herds are mostly affected by. In 37 Thailand, studies on rotavirus group A (RVA) have been reported continuously, whereas 38 information on group C is still limited. In this study, we aimed to identify rotavirus group C 39 (RVC) from the feces and intestinal contents of pigs affected with diarrhea. Seven hundred and 40 sixty-nine samples were collected from swine herds located in difference provinces throughout 41 Thailand. The specimens were tested using virus-specific RT-PCR to detect the gene encoding 42 RVC capsid protein VP7 and VP4. Sequencing analyses showed that 6.6% (51/769) of samples 43 were positive for RVC, one third of which tested as single positive for RVC (34/...