In the present meta-analysis, we examined the effect of cognitive training on the Executive Functions (EFs) of preschool children (age range: 3-6 years). We selected a final set of 32 studies from 27 papers with a total sample of 123 effect sizes. We found an overall effect of cognitive training for improving EF (g = 0.352; k = 123; p < 0.001), without significant difference between near and far transfer effects on executive domains. No significant additional outcome effects were found for behavioral-and learning-related outcomes. Cognitive training programs for preschoolers are significantly more effective for developmentally at-risk children (ADHD or low socioeconomic status) than for children with typical development and without risks. Other significant moderators were: individual vs. group sessions and length of training. The number of sessions and computerized vs. non-computerized training were not significant moderators. This is the first demonstration of cognitive training for transfer effects among different executive processes. We discuss this result in relationship to the lower level of modularization of EFs in younger children.

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Motor abnormalities are highly prevalent in children with autism spectrum disorder and are strongly predictive of adaptive functioning. Despite the documented sex bias in the prevalence of the disorder, the impact of sex differences on motor abnormalities has been overlooked. The goal of this study was to investigate differences in the motor profile of boys and girls with autism spectrum disorder aged 3–11 years using a multimethod approach. Ninety-eight children with autism spectrum disorder and 98 typically developing children were assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2, the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire, and the kinematic analysis of a reach-to-drop task. Results from principal components analysis on reach-to-drop-dependent measures indicated four components, accounting for kinematic parameters of the motor task. Irrespective of sex, children with autism spectrum disorder showed worse scores on Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2 and Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire subscales than typically developing children. Interestingly, a diagnosis-by-sex interaction was found on a kinematic feature measured in the last part of the movement, with girls with autism spectrum disorder presenting altered motor anticipation. Although preliminary, these findings suggested that sex-related nuances in motor functioning of children with autism spectrum disorder could be insufficiently captured by existing motor measures. Lay abstract Motor peculiarities are often reported in children with autism spectrum disorder and may predict subsequent adaptive functioning and quality of life. Although the sex bias in the prevalence of the disorder is well documented, little is known about differences in motor profile in males and females with autism spectrum disorder. Our goal was to study differences in motor functioning of boys and girls with autism spectrum disorder aged 3–11 years compared with typically developing children. Their motor performances were evaluated using a multimethod approach, including standardized motor tests, caregiver reports, and a detailed motion capture analysis of a simple reach-to-drop movement. We found that, irrespective of sex, children with autism spectrum disorder had worse scores than typically developing children on standardized tests and on caregiver reports. Interestingly, girls with autism spectrum disorder, but not boys, presented altered motor anticipation in reach-to-drop. Our findings emphasize the need for more sex-specific assessment of motor function in autism spectrum disorder.

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Executive functions (EFs) and narrative competence (NC) are two important predictors of many outcomes in human development. To date, however, it is unclear whether these skills develop synergistically—supporting or opposing each other—or whether they are independent of each other. The purpose of this meta-analysis is to understand if these skills are related to over development and if the magnitude of their association changes over time; differs in typical and atypical development; and changes with EF (inhibition, working memory, flexibility, planning) and NC (oral, written; micro and macrostructural level). For this purpose, 30 studies containing 285 effect sizes were selected and combined. The results show that EFs and NC are weakly associated with each other (r = 0.236, p < 0.001) and that this association decreases with age (b(267) = −0.0144, p = 0.001). They are more associated in preschool and early elementary school grades, becoming more independent after seven years old. Between 3 and 7 years of age, the association seems stronger in atypically developing children and for macrostructural NC. Additionally, before 7 years old, the various EF domains seem to associate indistinctly with NC, and only later specific links between EFs and NC would be observed.

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Purpose: This study aimed to describe speech sound development in a group of 18-month-old children with sex chromosome trisomies (SCTs), compared with a group of typically developing (TD) peers. Concurrent and longitudinal relationships between speech sound abilities and lexical development were examined. Method: A group of 76 children aged 18 months, 38 children prenatally diagnosed with SCTs (12 with XXY, 12 with XYY, and 14 with XXX) and 38 TD children, participated in the study. From video recordings of semistructured naturalistic parent–child play sessions, quantitative and qualitative measures of speech sound development were collected (e.g., the number of consonants, type and place of articulation, and syllable structures used), and group differences were observed. The relationships between the number of consonants produced and vocabulary size at 18 and 24 months were assessed. Results: At 18 months, children with SCTs used a significantly lower number of consonants than TD children. Qualitatively, children with SCTs used significantly fewer articulatory complex consonants (fricative/affricates) and a more restricted inventory of syllable structures. The number of consonants used was significantly correlated with lexical development at 18 months. Moreover, in the SCTs group (but not in the TD group), the children with lower speech sound development at 18 months showed a significantly smaller vocabulary growth between 18 and 24 months than those with higher speech-sound development. Conclusions: Toddlers with SCTs showed a significantly delayed speech sound development pattern rather than an atypical one. Children with SCTs with low speech sound development also showed lower vocabulary growth between 18 and 24 months of age. These results can be clinically relevant for follow-up and treatment planning for children with SCTs.