Understanding the spatial and temporal evolution of biota in the tropical Andes is a major challenge, given the region's topographic complexity and high beta diversity. We used a network approach to find biogeographic regions (bioregions) based on high-resolution species distribution models for 151 endemic bird taxa. Then, we used dated molecular phylogenies of 14 genera to reconstruct the area history through a sequence of allopatric speciation processes. We identified 15 biogeographical regions and found 26 events of isolation and diversification within their boundaries that are independently confirmed with disjunct distributions of sister taxa. Furthermore, these events are spatially congruent with six geographical barriers related to warm and/or dry river valleys, discontinuities in elevation, and high peaks separating fauna from different range slopes. The most important barrier is the Marañon River Valley, which limits the boundaries of four bioregions and is congruent with eight phylogenetic distribution breaks, separating the Central and Northern Andes, where the most bioregions are found. We also show that many bioregions have diffuse and overlapping structures, with contact and transition zones that challenge previous conceptions of biogeographical regions as spatially simple in structure. This study found evidence that the drivers of our identified bioregions were processes of Andean uplift and mountain dispersal facilitated by temperature oscillations of the Pleistocene. Therefore, Andean bioregions were not formed from one simple biogeographical event in a certain time frame, but from a combination of vicariance and dispersal events, which occurred in different time periods.

Direct behavioral observations, plus deductions made from studying the lines in recently built webs, showed that Linothele macwlhelifera Strand 1 908 lays swaths of lines in relatively stereotypic ways that differ during sheet web and tube construction. Sheet construction occurs in brief bursts interspersed with returns to the retreat. The legs are not used to manipulate lines; the spinnerets attach lines to the substrate and are probably used as sense organs. Asymmetrical use of the spinnerets during sheet construction results in an increase in the variety of orientations of lines in the sheet.

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Among ctenid spiders, ctenines comprise the most diverse subfamily. In this study, a new genus of Cteninae, Spinoctenus, is proposed to include the type species S. yotoco, sp. nov. Ten new species are also described: S. escalerete, S. pericos, S. eberhardi, S. spinosus, S. stephaniae, S. nambi, S. florezi, S. tequendama, S. chocoensis and S. flammigerus. Results of the parsimony and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses using morphological and behavioural characters indicate the monophyly of this genus, closely related to Phoneutria Perty, 1883 and Ctenus Walckenaer, 1805. This genus can be distinguished from the remaining Ctenidae by three unambiguous synapomorphies: embolus with folded process, tegulum with median process, and RTA curved internally close to the cymbium. A dispersal-vicariance biogeographical analysis of the genus in the Andean and Chocó regions indicates the origin of Spinoctenus in the Western and Central Andean Cordilleras. From this region, three events of dispersal occurred to the other regions (one to the Chocó and two to the Eastern Cordillera), which were subsequently followed by three events of vicariance, suggesting that dispersal and vicariance were equally important in shaping the current distribution patterns of Spinoctenus species. The discovery of this new genus containing a large number of new species in the Andean and Chocó regions highlights the current poor knowledge of the Colombian biodiversity. http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:A7DA044C-8A59-4FAE-8F3B-00D3D2498820

This study provides new records, geographical distribution extensions and a checklist of the current ctenids species in Colombia based on the review of four arachnological collections and published literature. A total of 15 new records for Ctenidae in Colombia are reported; nine of these species are new records for the country and the distribution of the remaining six is expanded. The genus Centroctenus Mello-Leitão, 1929 (C. ocelliventer Strand, 1909) is recorded for first time in Colombia and Cupiennius coccineus (F.O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1901) for South America. Due to the strategic geographic position of Colombia, which is a transition zone between Southern and Central American biotas, species inventories in different localities are important to fill distributional gaps. The number of known species of ctenids in Colombia is increased from 16 to 25 and these data will be useful for future studies in taxonomy, systematics and biogeography of this family.

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The species of the genus Phoneutria (Ctenidae), also called banana spiders, are considered amongst the most venomous spiders in the world. In this study we revalidate P. depilata (Strand, 1909), which had been synonymized with P. boliviensisis (F.O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897), using morphological and nucleotide sequence data (COI and ITS-2) together with species delimitation methods. We synonymized Ctenus peregrinoides, Strand, 1910 and Phoneutria colombiana Schmidt, 1956 with P. depilata. Furthermore, we designated Ctenus signativenter Strand, 1910 as a nomen dubium because the exact identity of this species cannot be ascertained with immature specimens, but we note that the type locality suggests that the C. signativenter syntypes belong to P. depilata. We also provide species distribution models for both species of Phoneutria and test hypotheses of niche conservatism under an allopatric speciation model. Our phylogenetic analyses support the monophyly of the genus Phoneutria and recover P. boliviensis and P. depilata as sister species, although with low nodal support. In addition, the tree-based species delimitation methods also supported the separate identities of these two species. Phoneutria boliviensis and P. depilata present allopatric distributions separated by the Andean mountain system. Species distribution models indicate lowland tropical rain forest ecosystems as the most suitable habitat for these two Phoneutria species. In addition, we demonstrate the value of citizen science platforms like iNaturalist in improving species distribution knowledge based on occurrence records. Phoneutria depilata and P. boliviensis present niche conservatism following the expected neutral model of allopatric speciation. The compiled occurrence records and distribution maps for these two species, together with the morphological diagnosis of both species, will help to identify risk areas of accidental bites and assist health professionals to determine the identity of the species involved in bites, especially for P. depilata.

Whiteflies (Hemiptera, Aleyrodidae) are represented by more than 1,500 herbivorous species around the world. Some of them are notorious pests of cassava (Manihot esculenta), a primary food crop in the tropics. Particularly destructive is a complex of Neotropical cassava whiteflies whose distribution remains restricted to their native range. Despite their importance, neither their distribution, nor that of their associated parasitoids, is well documented. This paper therefore reports observational and specimen-based occurrence records of Neotropical cassava whiteflies and their associated parasitoids and hyperparasitoids. The dataset consists of 1,311 distribution records documented by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) between 1975 and 2012. The specimens are held at CIAT’s Arthropod Reference Collection (CIATARC, Cali, Colombia). Eleven species of whiteflies, 14 species of parasitoids and one species of hyperparasitoids are reported. Approximately 66% of the whitefly records belong to Aleurotrachelus socialis and 16% to Bemisia tuberculata. The parasitoids with most records are Encarsia hispida, Amitus macgowni and Encarsia bellottii for Aleurotrachelus socialis; and Encarsia sophia for Bemisia tuberculata. The complete dataset is available in Darwin Core Archive format via the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF).