A previous study on the feeding responses of tsetse flies, Glossina morsitans morsitans, implicated the existence of allomonal barriers, both volatile and nonvolatile, on the nonpreferred host, waterbuck, Kobus defassa. In the present study, electroantennogram-active compounds in odors from waterbuck were compared with those of two preferred hosts of tsetse flies, buffalo, Syncerus caffer, and ox, Bos indicus. Odors from the three bovids were trapped on activated charcoal and/or reverse-phase (octadecyl bonded) silica and analyzed with a gas chromatography-linked electroantennographic detector (GC-EAD) and, where possible, identified by using gas chromatography-linked mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and chromatographic comparisons with authentic samples. The GC-EAD profiles (with G. m. morsitans antennae) of the odors of the two preferred hosts were comparable, comprising medium-chain, saturated or unsaturated aldehydes and phenols, with buffalo emitting a few more EAG-active aldehydes. Waterbuck odor gave a richer profile, consisting of fewer aldehydes but more phenolic components and a series of 2-ketones (C-C13) and delta-octalactone. This bovid also emits moderate amounts of C5-C9 straight-chain fatty acids, some of which were detected in buffalo and ox only in trace amounts. However, these did not elicit significant GC-EAD responses. Waterbuck profiles from the antennae of G. pallidipes showed broad similarity to those from G. m. morsitans, although the composition of aldehydes and ketones was somewhat different, indicating species-specific difference in the detection of host odors. Certain waterbuck-specific EAG-active components, particularly the 2-ketones and lactone, constitute a candidate allomonal blend in waterbuck odor.
In a previous study, comparison of the behavior of teneral Glossina morsitans morsitans on waterbuck, Kobus defassa (a refractory host), and on two preferred hosts, buffalo, Syncerus caffer, and ox, Bos indicus, suggested the presence of allomones in the waterbuck odor. Examination of the volatile odors by coupled gas chromatography-electroantennographic detection showed that the antennal receptors of the flies detected constituents common to the three bovids (phenols and aldehydes), as well as a series of compounds specific to waterbuck, including C8-C13 methyl ketones, delta-octalactone, and phenols. In this study, behavioral respones of teneral G. m. morsitans to different blends of these compounds were evaluated in a choice wind tunnel. The flies' responses to known or putative attractant blends (the latter comprising EAG-active constituents common to all three animals and those common to buffalo and ox, excluding the known tseste attractants, 4-methylphenol and 3-n-propylphenol), and to putative repellent (the blend of EAG-active compounds specific to the waterbuck volatiles), were different. A major difference related to their initial and final behaviors. When a choice of attractant blends (known or putative) and clean air was presented, flies initially responded by flying upwind toward the odor source, but later moved downwind and rested on either side of the tunnel, with some preference for the side with the odor treatments. However, when presented with a choice of waterbuck-specific blend (putative repellent) and clean air, the flies' initial reaction appeared random; flies flew upwind on either side, but eventually settled down on the odorless side of the tunnel. Flies that flew up the odor plume showed an aversion behavior to the blend. The results lend further support to previous indications for the existence of a tsetse repellent blend in waterbuck body odor and additional attractive constituents in buffalo and ox body odors.
Thin porridge from cereals and starchy tubers is a common complementary food in Sub Saharan Africa. It may be high in antinutrients, low in energy, and nutrient density hence inadequate in providing infants' high energy and nutrients requirements per unit body weight. Consequently, undernourishment levels among children under 5 years are high. Therefore, there is need to avail nutrient‐dense complementary foods especially for children in low‐resource settings. The study was aimed at developing a nutrient‐dense complementary food from amaranth and sorghum grains. Amaranth grain, a pseudocereal, though rarely used as a complementary food in Kenya has a higher nutritional quality than other staples. Plant‐based foods are known to have high levels of antinutrients. Steeping and germination were used to reduce the levels of antinutrients and enhance the bioavailability of minerals in the grains. Various steeped and germinated amaranth and sorghum grains formulations were made to find the ratio with the highest nutrient content and lowest antinutrient levels. The 90% amaranth‐sorghum grains formulation had significantly (F = 32.133, P < 0.05) higher energy (5 kcal per g on dry weight basis) than the other formulations and a protein content of 14.4%. This is higher than the estimated protein needs from complementary foods even for a 12–23 months child of low breast milk intake (9.1 g/d). Antinutrients could not be detected which could imply enhanced nutrient bioavailability. Therefore, a nutrient‐dense complementary food product was developed from steeped and germinated amaranth and sorghum grains with 90% amaranth grain. In ready to eat form, it would give an energy content of 1.7 kcal per g (dilution of 1:2 amaranth‐sorghum flour to water) and 1.2 kcal per g (dilution of 1:4 amaranth‐sorghum flour to water). It can be used as a nutrient‐dense complementary food and for other vulnerable groups.
In traditional African communities, repellent volatiles from certain plants generated by direct burning or by thermal expulsion have played an important role in protecting households against vectors of malaria and other diseases. Previous research on volatile constituents of plants has shown that some are good sources of potent mosquito repellents. In this bioprospecting initiative, the essential oil of leaves of the tree, Suregada zanzibariensis Verdc. (Angiospermae: Euphobiaceae) was tested against the mosquito, Anopheles gambiae s.s. Giles (Diptera: Culicidae) and found to be repellent. Gas chromatography (GC), GC-linked mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and, where possible, GC-co-injections with authentic compounds, led to the identification of about 34 compounds in the essential oil. About 56% of the constituents were terpenoid ketones, mostly methyl ketones. Phenylacetaldehyde (14.4%), artemisia ketone (10.1%), (1S)-(-)-verbenone (12.1%) and geranyl acetone (9.4%) were the main constituents. Apart from phenylacetaldehyde, repellent activities of the other main constituents were higher than that of the essential oil. The blends of the main constituents in proportions found in the essential oil were more repellent to An. gambiae s.s. than was the parent oil (p < 0.05), and the presence of artemisia ketone in the blend caused a significant increase in the repellency of the resulting blend. These results suggested that blends of some terpenoid ketones can serve as effective An. gambiae s.s. mosquito repellents.
δ-octalactone, produced by several Bovidae, has been suggested as a potential repellant of tsetse fly attack. Racemic δ-octalactone was synthesized via an abbreviated route. The product was assayed against 3-day old starved teneral female tsetse flies, Glossina morsitans morsitans Wiedemann (Diptera: Glossinidae), in a choice wind tunnel and found to be a potent tsetse repellent at doses ≥0.05 mg in 200 µl of paraffin oil (0.05 >p >0.01).
Laboratory studies were conducted to assess the toxicity and growth-inhibitory activity against Acdes aegypti larvae, of the crude acetone extracts of Polygonum senegnlense (Meissn.) leaves, its flavonoid component2',6'-dihydroxy-4'-methoxydihydrochalcone and the internal tissue flavanol quercetin. The first two showed significantly high insecticidal and growth-inhibitory activity even at low concentrations, whereas quercetin was toxic only at concentrations above 7(Xg/ml.Resume-Des etudes au laboratoire ont ete menees pour deceler l'effet toxique et inhibiteur de croissance chez les larves d'Acdes aegypti, par emploi des extraits bruts a l'acetone obtenus des feuilles de Polygonum senegnlense (Meissn.) et en comparaison avec ses composants flavonoides: 2',6'dihydroxy-4'-methoxydihydrochalcone et du flavonol quercitine des tissus internes de la plante. Les deux premiers produits ont montre une activite hautement significative du pouvoir insecticide et d'effet inhibiteur de croissance meme a des basses concentrations, au moment ou la quercitine etait seulement toxique a des concentrations superieures a 7 |j.g/ml.
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