Cervical cancer (CC) is the fourth most common cause of cancer death in women. The most important risk factor for the development of CC is cervical infection with human papilloma virus (HPV). Inflammation is a protective strategy that is triggered by the host against pathogens such as viral infections that acts rapidly to activate the innate immune response. Inflammation is beneficial if it is brief and well controlled; however, if the inflammation is excessive or it becomes of chronic duration, it can produce detrimental effects. HPV proteins are involved, both directly and indirectly, in the development of chronic inflammation, which is a causal factor in the development of CC. However, other factors may also have a potential role in stimulating chronic inflammation. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) (a class of noncoding RNAs) are strong regulators of gene expression. They have emerged as key players in several biological processes, including inflammatory pathways. Abnormal expression of miRNAs may be linked to the induction of inflammation that occurs in CC. Exosomes are a subset of extracellular vesicles shed by almost all types of cells, which can function as cargo transfer vehicles. Exosomes contain proteins and genetic material (including miRNAs) derived from their parent cells and can potentially affect recipient cells. Exosomes have recently been recognized to be involved in inflammatory processes and can also affect the immune response. In this review, we discuss the role of HPV proteins, miRNAs and exosomes in the inflammation associated with CC.

Cervical cancer is as a kind of cancer beginning from the cervix. Given that cervical cancer could be observed in women who infected with papillomavirus, regular oral contraceptives, and multiple pregnancies. Early detection of cervical cancer is one of the most important aspects of the therapy of this malignancy. Despite several efforts, finding and developing new biomarkers for cervical cancer diagnosis are required. Among various prognostic, diagnostic, and therapeutic biomarkers, miRNA have been emerged as powerful biomarkers for detection, treatment, and monitoring of response to therapy in cervical cancer. Here, we summarized various miRNAs as an employable platform for prognostic, diagnostic, and therapeutic biomarkers in the treatment of cervical cancer.

Both environmental and genetic factors are involved in the initiation and development of gastrointestinal cancer. Covalent closed circular RNAs (circRNAs) are produced by a mechanism called "back-splicing" from mRNAs. They are highly stable and show cell and tissue specific expression patterns. Although some functions such as "microRNA sponge" and "RNA binding protein sponge" have been reported for a small number of circRNAs, the function of thousands of other circRNAs is still unknown. Dysregulation of circRNAs has been reported in many GI cancers and are involved in metastasis and invasion. CircRNAs have been reported to be useful as prognostic markers and targets for developing new treatments. We first describe the properties and biogenesis of circRNAs. We then summarize recent reports about circRNA functions, expression status, and their potential to be used as biomarkers in GI cancers including, gastric cancer, colorectal cancer, esophageal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, gallbladder cancer and pancreatic cancer.

Exosomes, as the main group of extracellular vesicles, are biologically active lipid-bilayer vesicles that are naturally released from different types of normal or tumor cells. These vesicles play an important role in intercellular communication and influence the extracellular environment and the immune system. Emerging evidence demonstrates that cancer-derived exosomes are enriched in immunosuppressive proteins, such as the programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1). PD-L1 and its receptor programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) are the key immune checkpoint molecules that promote tumor progression via negative regulation of immune responses. PDL-1 is highly expressed on the surface of tumor cells and binds to PD-1 on the surface of activated T cells, leading to suppression of T cells, which consequently enables cancer cells to escape antitumor immunity. Currently, there are several Food and Drug Administration-approved monoclonal antibodies blocking PD-1/PD-L1 interaction, which are clinically used for cancer treatment. However, despite impressive treatment outcomes, some patients show poor response to PD-1/PD-L1 blockade. Of note, tumor-derived exosomes containing PD-L1 can recapitulate the effect of cell-surface PD-L1. There is evidence that reveals a significant association between levels of circulating exosomal PD-L1 and rate of response to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibody therapy. The present article reviews the role of exosomal PDL-1 in the therapeutic resistance to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 treatment. Importantly, it is suggested that the removal of exosomal PDL-1 could serve as a therapeutic adjuvant for enhancing the efficacy of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy in patients with cancer.

Influenza A virus is known worldwide as a threat associated with human and livestock diseases. Hence, identification of physiological and molecular aspects of influenza A could contribute to better design of therapeutic approaches for reducing adverse effects associated with disease caused by this virus. miRNAs are epigenetic regulators playing important roles in many pathological processes that help in progression of influenza A. Besides miRNAs, exosomes have ememrged as other effective players in influenza A pathogenesis. Exosomes exert their effects via targeting their cargos (e.g., DNAs, mRNA, miRNAs and proteins) to recipient cells. Here, we summarized various roles of miRNAs and exosomes in influenza A pathogenesis. Moreover, we highlighted therapeutic applications of miRNAs and exosomes in influenza.

Cellular microRNAs (miRNAs) were identified as a key player in the posttranscriptional regulation of cellular‐genes regulatory pathways. They also emerged as a significant regulator of the immune response. In particular, miR‐146a acts as an importance modulator of function and differentiation cells of the innate and adaptive immunity. It has been associated with disorder including cancer and viral infections. Given its significance in the regulation of key cellular processes, it is not surprising which virus infection have found ways to dysregulation of miRNAs. miR‐146a has been identified in exosomes (exosomal miR‐146a). After the exosomes release from donor cells, they are taken up by the recipient cell and probably the exosomal miR‐146a is able to modulate the antiviral response in the recipient cell and result in making them more susceptible to virus infection. In this review, we discuss recent reports regarding miR‐146a expression levels, target genes, function, and contributing role in the pathogenesis of the viral infection and provide a clue to develop the new therapeutic and preventive strategies for viral disease in the future.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is known as one of the major health problems worldwide. Pathological analysis indicated that a variety of risk factors including genetical (i.e., alteration of tumor suppressors and oncogenes) and environmental factors (i.e., viruses) are involved in beginning and development of HCC. The understanding of these risk factors could guide scientists and clinicians to design effective therapeutic options in HCC treatment. Various viruses such as hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) via targeting several cellular and molecular pathways involved in HCC pathogenesis. Among various cellular and molecular targets, microRNAs (miRNAs) have appeared as key players in HCC progression. miRNAs are short noncoding RNAs which could play important roles as oncogenes or tumor suppressors in several malignancies such as HCC. Deregulation of many miRNAs (i.e., miR‐222, miR‐25, miR‐92a, miR‐1, let‐7f, and miR‐21) could be associated with different stages of HCC. Besides miRNAs, exosomes are other particles which are involved in HCC pathogenesis via targeting different cargos, such as DNAs, RNAs, miRNAs, and proteins. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of the role of miRNAs and exosomes as important players in HCC pathogenesis. Moreover, we highlighted HCV‐ and HBV‐related miRNAs which led to HCC progression.

Objectives HIV infection is well known to cause impairment of the human immune system, and until recently was a leading cause of death. It has been shown that T lymphocytes are the main targets of HIV. The virus inactivates T lymphocytes by interfering with a wide range of cellular and molecular targets, leading to suppression of the immune system. The objective of this review is to investigate to what extent microRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in HIV pathogenesis. Methods The scientific literature (Pubmed and Google scholar) for the period 1988–2019 was searched. Results Mounting evidence has revealed that miRNAs are involved in viral replication and immune response, whether by direct targeting of viral transcripts or through indirect modulation of virus‐related host pathways. In addition, exosomes have been found to act as nanoscale carriers involved in HIV pathogenesis. These nanovehicles target their cargos (i.e. DNA, RNA, viral proteins and miRNAs) leading to alteration of the behaviour of recipient cells. Conclusions miRNAs and exosomes are important players in HIV pathogenesis. Additionally, there are potential diagnostic applications of miRNAs as biomarkers in HIV infection.