Research examining problem representations of individuals during task performance is advancing our understanding of information processing and expertise in a variety of sports. However, few studies using similar methodology have been conducted on individuals of various competitive standards in one domain in similar contexts. This study examined problem representations of adult advanced beginners and entry-level professionals accessed during singles tennis competition (n = 12). These groups were selected to represent players with performance skills that were different from those studied previously (i.e. adult beginners and varsity players). Immediate recall and planning interviews were conducted between points during singles tennis competition. Players competed within their respective expertise groups. Verbal reports were transcribed verbatim and concepts were scored according to a model of protocol structure. Several multivariate analyses of variance were conducted on rank scores for measures of concept content and structure using the L-statistic. Entry-level professionals exhibited more advanced problem representations than advanced beginners regardless of interview type. These findings together with those of previous research suggest adaptations in long-term memory profiles with increases in performance skills. For example, beginners lacked action plan and current event profiles because they generated goals and reiterated game events during both interviews. Advanced beginners, who had better performance skills than beginners, exhibited rudimentary action plan profiles and deficient current event profiles because they generated and monitored several detailed actions related to the current context during recall interviews and generated only a few goals during planning interviews. In contrast, varsity players and professionals processed tactical information in the current context and beyond denoting the existence of both action plan and current event profiles. Varsity players, with inferior performance skills than professionals, exhibited fewer and less associated tactical concepts than professionals during both interviews.

The influence of information feedback on the learning of a multiple-degree-of-freedom activity, the overhand throw, was investigated. During learning, feedback was presented in the form of knowledge of results, knowledge of performance, knowledge of performance with attention-focusing cues, or knowledge of performance with error-correcting transitional information. Across 12 practice sessions, performance was assessed with respect to both throwing distance and throwing form. Subjects provided with knowledge of performance along with transitional information demonstrated significant gains in throwing distance, compared with subjects receiving knowledge of performance or knowledge of results alone. Movement form ratings followed the same trend. Providing learners with cues to focus their attention on the relevant aspects of knowledge of performance or directly providing transitional information was a better aid to the acquisition of throwing form than providing knowledge of results or knowledge of performance alone. These results support the hypothesis that knowledge of results may not be the most potent form of feedback in multiple-degree-of-freedom activities and that knowledge of performance, when combined with additional information, can lead to significant gains in skill acquisition.

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The purpose was to (a) examine whether computer-based distance learning could enhance the qualitative analysis skills (error detection in the overhand throw) of undergraduates in education and (b) examine the effectiveness of several methods of information presentation (video file and text) on distance learning. Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups, to detect errors in an incorrect throwing motion of a model on the computer screen. Group 1 (n=13) was the control; Group 2 (n=13) viewed a video of the appropriate throwing mechanics; Group 3 (n=13) viewed text information describing the appropriate mechanics of the overhand throw; and Group 4 (n=16) received a combination of video and text information. On Day 1 participants took a pretest. Treatment and testing occurred on Days 2 through 8. Then 5 days later participants took a retention test. One-way analysis of variance confirmed no significant differences between groups at Pretest (Day 1). An analysis of variance with repeated measures indicated learning over practice. Paired-sample t tests between Days 1 and 8 showed the video plus text group without significant change.

The influence of two methods of providing information to women, ages 19 to 22 years who were novices and learning the overhand throw with the nondominant arm, was examined. One group received verbal information on correcting errors, and a second group received the same information immediately prior to viewing a videotaped replay of a just completed throw. Performance was assessed quantitatively with respect to outcome (distance thrown) and qualitatively with respect to throwing form as measured on a 7-point rating scale by judges with a working knowledge of the overhand throw and with respect to throwing mechanics rated by a panel of experts in biomechanics using a scale of Leme and Shambes. Although the treatments led to better learning and performance, there was no significant difference between groups for distance thrown on the Leme and Shambes scale in Sessions 1-6 of 10 trials each on Session 7. The mean rating also indicated increased scores for both groups and better retention at posttest by the group receiving only verbal corrections. These results suggest that information provided by adding videotaped replay may be redundant and unnecessary for those in Sessions 1-6.

Resting immune function and infection incidence were compared between 20 (10 male, 10 female) elite teenage tennis athletes and 18 (9 male, 9 female) non-athletic, age-matched controls. Male and female athletes trained an average of 17.6 ± 0.8 hours per week and possessed VO2max values that were 15% and 22% higher, respectively, than controls. NK cell counts were 53% higher (p = 0.015) and neutrophil counts were 16% lower (p = 0.030) in the athletes; however, salivary IgA output, serum/plasma concentration of IL-6, Il-1ra, cortisol, and growth hormone, PHA-induced lymphocyte proliferation and IL-2 production, and the incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) during 2.5 months did not differ between groups. These data suggest . Downloaded by [Athabasca University] at 17:22 11 June 2016 236 D. A. Henson et al.that despite intensive training by adolescent tennis athletes, immune function and URTI incidence are normal. The NK cell elevation is consistent with previous studies in athletes that show an enhanced recirculation and activity of NK cells.

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