Abstract. An important roadblock to improved intensity forecasts for tropical cyclones (TCs) is our incomplete understanding of the interaction of a TC with the environmental flow. In this paper we re-visit the canonical problem of a TC in vertical wind shear on an f-plane. A suite of numerical experiments is performed with intense TCs in moderate to strong vertical shear. We employ a set of simplified model physics -a simple bulk aerodynamic boundary layer scheme and "warm rain" microphysics -to foster better understanding of the dynamics and thermodynamics that govern the modification of TC intensity. In all experiments the TC is resilient to shear but significant differences in the intensity evolution occur.The ventilation of the TC core with dry environmental air at mid-levels and the dilution of the upper-level warm core are two prevailing hypotheses for the adverse effect of vertical shear on storm intensity. Here we propose an alternative and arguably more effective mechanism how cooler and drier (lower θ e ) air -"anti-fuel" for the TC power machine -can enter the core region of the TC. Strong and persistent, shear-induced downdrafts flux low θ e air into the boundary layer from above, significantly depressing the θ e values in the storm's inflow layer. Air with lower θ e values enters the eyewall updrafts, considerably reducing eyewall θ e values in the azimuthal mean. When viewed from the perspective of an idealised Carnot-cycle heat engine a decrease of storm intensity can thus be expected. Although the Carnot cycle model is -if at all -only valid for stationary and axisymmetric TCs, a close association of the downward transport of low θ e into the boundary layer and the intensity evolution offers further evidence in support of our hypothesis.Correspondence to: M. Riemer (mriemer@nps.edu)The downdrafts that flush the boundary layer with low θ e air are tied to a quasi-stationary, azimuthal wave number 1 convective asymmetry outside of the eyewall. This convective asymmetry and the associated downdraft pattern extends outwards to approximately 150 km. Downdrafts occur on the vortex scale and form when precipitation falls out from sloping updrafts and evaporates in the unsaturated air below. It is argued that, to zero order, the formation of the convective asymmetry is forced by frictional convergence associated with the azimuthal wave number 1 vortex Rossby wave structure of the outer-vortex tilt. This work points to an important connection between the thermodynamic impact in the near-core boundary layer and the asymmetric balanced dynamics governing the TC vortex evolution.
Rossby wave packets (RWPs) are Rossby waves for which the amplitude has a local maximum and decays to smaller values at larger distances. This review focuses on upper-tropospheric transient RWPs along the midlatitude jet stream. Their central characteristic is the propagation in the zonal direction as well as the transfer of wave energy from one individual trough or ridge to its downstream neighbor, a process called “downstream development.” These RWPs sometimes act as long-range precursors to extreme weather and presumably have an influence on the predictability of midlatitude weather systems. The paper reviews research progress in this area with an emphasis on developments during the last 15 years. The current state of knowledge is summarized including a discussion of the RWP life cycle as well as Rossby waveguides. Recent progress in the dynamical understanding of RWPs has been based, in part, on the development of diagnostic methods. These methods include algorithms to identify and track RWPs in an automated manner, which can be used to extract the climatological properties of RWPs. RWP dynamics have traditionally been investigated using the eddy kinetic energy framework; alternative approaches based on potential vorticity and wave activity fluxes are discussed and put into perspective with the more traditional approach. The different diagnostics are compared to each other and the strengths and weaknesses of individual methods are highlighted. A recurrent theme is the role of diabatic processes, which can be a source for forecast errors. Finally, the paper points to important open research questions and suggests avenues for future research.
Extratropical transition (ET) is the process by which a tropical cyclone, upon encountering a baroclinic environment and reduced sea surface temperature at higher latitudes, transforms into an extratropical cyclone. This process is influenced by, and influences, phenomena from the tropics to the midlatitudes and from the meso- to the planetary scales to extents that vary between individual events. Motivated in part by recent high-impact and/or extensively observed events such as North Atlantic Hurricane Sandy in 2012 and western North Pacific Typhoon Sinlaku in 2008, this review details advances in understanding and predicting ET since the publication of an earlier review in 2003. Methods for diagnosing ET in reanalysis, observational, and model-forecast datasets are discussed. New climatologies for the eastern North Pacific and southwest Indian Oceans are presented alongside updates to western North Pacific and North Atlantic Ocean climatologies. Advances in understanding and, in some cases, modeling the direct impacts of ET-related wind, waves, and precipitation are noted. Improved understanding of structural evolution throughout the transformation stage of ET fostered in large part by novel aircraft observations collected in several recent ET events is highlighted. Predictive skill for operational and numerical model ET-related forecasts is discussed along with environmental factors influencing posttransition cyclone structure and evolution. Operational ET forecast and analysis practices and challenges are detailed. In particular, some challenges of effective hazard communication for the evolving threats posed by a tropical cyclone during and after transition are introduced. This review concludes with recommendations for future work to further improve understanding, forecasts, and hazard communication.
ABSTRACT:The interaction of a tropical cyclone undergoing extratropical transition (ET) with the midlatitude synopticscale flow is investigated using full-physics numerical experiments with idealized initial conditions. The emphasis is on the impact on the midlatitude flow downstream of the ET event. The midlatitude flow is represented by a balanced straight jet stream. As the tropical cyclone approaches the jet, a ridge-trough couplet and a distinct jet streak form in the upper-level flow. A midlatitude cyclone develops rapidly downstream of the ET system and the further evolution is characterized by downstream baroclinic development.Based on Hovmöller diagrams, the upper-level development is interpreted as the excitation and subsequent dispersion of a Rossby wave train on the potential vorticity gradient associated with the jet. The characteristics of this wave train are sensitive to the structure of the jet and to moist processes in the midlatitudes. The tropical cyclone undergoing ET acts as a sustained forcing for the wave train and the structure of the ET system impacts the development most significantly one to two wavelengths downstream of ET.Piecewise inversion of potential vorticity, complemented by the partitioning of the flow into its rotational and divergent parts, is applied to assess the impact of the ET system quantitatively. Both the cyclonic circulation and the outflow of the tropical cyclone are important contributors to the formation and amplification of the ridge-trough couplet. The outflow anomaly reduces the eastward motion of the ridge-trough couplet significantly and thus promotes phase-locking between the tropical cyclone and the upper-level pattern.
Seismically induced settlement of buildings with shallow foundations on liquefiable soils has resulted in significant damage in recent earthquakes. Engineers still largely estimate seismic building settlement using procedures developed to calculate postliquefaction reconsolidation settlement in the free-field. A series of centrifuge experiments involving buildings situated atop a layered soil deposit have been performed to identify the mechanisms involved in liquefaction-induced building settlement. Previous studies of this problem have identified important factors including shaking intensity, the liquefiable soil's relative density and thickness, and the building's weight and width. Centrifuge test results indicate that building settlement is not proportional to the thickness of the liquefiable layer and that most of this settlement occurs during earthquake strong shaking. Building-induced shear deformations combined with localized volumetric strains during partially drained cyclic loading are the dominant mechanisms. The development of high excess pore pressures, localized drainage in response to the high transient hydraulic gradients, and earthquake-induced ratcheting of the buildings into the softened soil are important effects that should be captured in design procedures that estimate liquefaction-induced building settlement.
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