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Identifying factors that influence animal density is a fundamental goal in ecology that has taken on new importance with the need to develop informed management plans. This is particularly the case for primates as the tropical forest that supports many species is being rapidly converted. We use a system of forest fragments adjacent to Kibale National Park, Uganda, to examine if food availability and parasite infections have synergistic affects on red colobus (Piliocolobus tephrosceles) abundance. Given that the size of primate populations can often respond slowly to environmental changes, we also examined how these factors influenced cortisol levels. To meet these objectives, we monitored gastrointestinal parasites, evaluated fecal cortisol levels, and determined changes in food availability by conducting complete tree inventories in eight fragments in 2000 and 2003. Red colobus populations declined by an average of 21% among the fragments; however, population change ranged from a 25% increase to a 57% decline. The cumulative basal area of food trees declined by an average of 29.5%; however, forest change was highly variable (a 2% gain to a 71% decline). We found that nematode prevalence averaged 58% among fragments (range 29-83%). The change in colobus population size was correlated both with food availability and a number of indices of parasite infections. A path analysis suggests that change in food availability has a strong direct effect on population size, but it also has an indirect effect via parasite infections.

Physical traits, such as body size, and processes like growth can be used as indices of primate health and can add to our understanding of life history and behavior. Accurately measuring physical traits in the wild can be challenging because capture is difficult, disrupts animals, and may cause injury. To measure physical traits of arboreal primates remotely, we adapted a parallel laser technique that has been used with terrestrial and marine mammals. Two parallel lasers separated by a known distance (4 cm) and mounted onto a digital camera are projected onto an animal. When a photograph is taken, the laser projections on the target provide a scale bar. We validated the technique for measuring the physical traits of identifiable red colobus monkeys (Procolobus rufomitratus) in Kibale National Park, Uganda. First, we photographed the tails of monkeys with laser projections and compared these with measurements previously obtained when the animals were captured. Second, we manually measured the distance between two markers placed on tree branches at similar heights to those used by monkeys, and compared them with the measurements obtained through digital photographs of the markers with parallel laser projections. The mean tail length of the monkeys via manual measurements was 63.3+/-4.4 cm, and via remote measurements was 63.0+/-4.1 cm. The mean distance between the markers on tree branches via manual measurements was 13.8+/-3.59 cm, and via remote measurements was 13.9+/-3.58 cm. The mean error using parallel lasers was 1.7% in both cases. Although the needed precision will depend on the question asked, our results suggest that sufficiently precise measurements of physical traits or substrates of arboreal primates can be obtained remotely using parallel lasers.

Summary A fundamental ecological question is what determines the abundance of animals?Answering this question is vital in the formulation of effective management plans for endangered or threatened species. However, there are few general hypotheses proposed to account for variation in animal abundance. Studies of folivorous primates are a notable exception. In this group, the protein to fibre ratio of mature leaves is a significant predictor of biomass. However, Dasilva (1992) suggested that the availability of energy may play a critical role in colobine behaviour and ecology. 2. Here we evaluate the importance of food energy content for the red colobus ( Procolobus badius ) and black-and-white colobus ( Colobus guereza ) monkeys of Kibale National Park, Uganda. 3. Energy was found to be of little importance. None of the eight groups studied selected high-energy foods: there was no correlation between food energy content and foraging effort. For all groups, estimates of energy expenditure [daily energy expenditure (DEE) and average daily metabolic needs (ADMN)] were less than estimates of energy consumption. Finally, the average energy content of mature leaves from the 20 most abundant tree species at four sites was not related to colobine biomass. 4. In contrast, the protein and fibre content of foods was important to both colobine species. Seven of the eight groups selected foods with a high-protein, low-fibre content. The average protein to fibre ratio of mature leaves from the 20 most abundant tree species at four sites was correlated positively with colobine biomass. 5. This study provides further validation of the protein to fibre model, suggesting the importance of this model for conservation and management of colobus monkeys, with the potential application to other small mammalian herbivores.

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The processes of habitat loss and fragmentation are probably the most important threats to biodiversity. It is critical that we understand the conservation value of fragments, because they may represent opportunities to make important conservation gains, particularly for species whose ranges are not in a protected area. However, our ability to understand the value of fragments for primates is limited by the fact that researchers have conducted many studies in protected areas, which do not represent most fragments, and studies are typically short term. Here we determine the long-term survival probability of red (Procolobus pennantii) and black-and-white colobus (Colobus guereza) inhabiting forest fragments outside of Kibale National Park, Uganda. Local communities use the fragments primarily for subsistence agriculture and fuelwood. We surveyed primate populations 3 times over Int J Primatol (2007) 28:513-528

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