SummarySome plants and animals feature superhydrophobic surfaces capable of retaining a layer of air when submerged under water. Long-term air retaining surfaces (Salvinia-effect) are of high interest for biomimetic applications like drag reduction in ship coatings of up to 30%. Here we present a novel method for measuring air volumes and air loss under water. We recorded the buoyancy force of the air layer on leaf surfaces of four different Salvinia species and on one biomimetic surface using a highly sensitive custom made strain gauge force transducer setup. The volume of air held by a surface was quantified by comparing the buoyancy force of the specimen with and then without an air layer. Air volumes retained by the Salvinia-surfaces ranged between 0.15 and 1 L/m2 depending on differences in surface architecture. We verified the precision of the method by comparing the measured air volumes with theoretical volume calculations and could find a good agreement between both values. In this context we present techniques to calculate air volumes on surfaces with complex microstructures. The introduced method also allows to measure decrease or increase of air layers with high accuracy in real-time to understand dynamic processes.
Immersed in water superhydrophobic surfaces (e.g., lotus) maintain thin temporary air films. In certain aquatic plants and animals, these films are thicker and more persistent. Floating ferns of the genus Salvinia show elaborated hierarchical superhydrophobic surface structures: a hairy cover of complex trichomes. In the case of S. molesta, they are eggbeater shaped and topped by hydrophilic tips, which pin the air-water interface and prevent rupture of contact. It has been proposed that these trichomes can oscillate with the air-water interface, when turbulences occur and thereby stabilize the air film. The deformability of such arrays of trichomes requires a certain elasticity of the structures. In this study, we determined the stiffness of the trichome coverage of S. molesta and three other Salvinia species. Our results confirm the elasticity of the trichome coverage in all investigated Salvinia species. We did not reveal a clear relationship between the time of air retention and stiffness of the trichome coverage, which means that the air retention function is additionally dependent on different parameters, e.g., the trichome shape and surface free energy. These data are not only interesting for Salvinia biology, but also important for the development of biomimetic air-retaining surfaces.
Superhydrophobic, hierarchically structured, technical surfaces (Lotus-effect) are of high scientific and economic interest because of their remarkable properties. Recently, the immense potential of air-retaining superhydrophobic surfaces, for example, for low-friction transport of fluids and drag-reducing coatings of ships has begun to be explored. A major problem of superhydrophobic surfaces mimicking the Lotus-effect is the limited persistence of the air retained, especially under rough conditions of flow. However, there are a variety of floating or diving plant and animal species that possess air-retaining surfaces optimized for durable water-repellency (Salvinia-effect). Especially floating ferns of the genus Salvinia have evolved superhydrophobic surfaces capable of maintaining layers of air for months. Apart from maintaining stability under water, the layer of air has to withstand the stresses of water pressure (up to 2.5 bars). Both of these aspects have an application to create permanent air layers on ships' hulls. We investigated the effect of pressure on air layers in a pressure cell and exposed the air layer to pressures of up to 6 bars. We investigated the suppression of the air layer at increasing pressures as well as its restoration during decreases in pressure. Three of the four examined Salvinia species are capable of maintaining air layers at pressures relevant to the conditions applying to ships' hulls. High volumes of air per surface area are advantageous for retaining at least a partial Cassie-Baxter-state under pressure, which also helps in restoring the air layer after depressurization. Closed-loop structures such as the baskets at the top of the "egg-beater hairs" (see main text) also help return the air layer to its original level at the tip of the hairs by trapping air bubbles.
In contrast to advancements in the fabrication of new superhydrophobic materials, the characterization of their water repellency and quality is often coarse and unsatisfactory. In view of the problems and inaccuracies, particularly in the measurement of very high contact angles, we developed alternative methods for the characterization of superhydrophobic surfaces. It was found that adhering water remnants after immersion are a useful criterion in determining the repellency quality. In this study, we introduce microscopy methods to detect traces of water-resembling test liquids on superhydrophobic surfaces by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) or fluorescence light microscopy (FLM). Diverse plant surfaces and some artificial superhydrophobic samples were examined. Instead of pure water, we used aqueous solutions containing a detectable stain and glycerol in order to prevent immediate evaporation of the microdroplets. For the SEM examinations, aqueous solutions of lead acetate were used, which could be detected in a frozen state at -90 °C with high sensitivity using a backscattered electron detector. For fluorescence microscopy, aqueous solutions of auramine were used. On different species of superhydrophobic plants, varying patterns of remaining microdroplets were found on their leaves. On some species, drop remnants occurred only on surface defects such as damaged epicuticular waxes. On others, microdroplets regularly decorated the locations of increased adhesion, particularly on hierarchically structured surfaces. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the method is suitable for testing the limits of repellency under harsh conditions, such as drop impact or long-enduring contact. The supplementation of the visualization method by the measurement of the pull-off force between a water drop and the sample allowed us to determine the adhesive properties of superhydrophobic surfaces quantitatively. The results were in good agreement with former studies of the water repellency and contact angles. In contrast to contact angle measurements, the acqusition of SEM images with high resolution and wide depth of sharpness gives better insight into the wetting behavior and susceptibility of the structural elements of the superhydrophobic surfaces.
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