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Distributed energy storage systems (ESSs) are becoming essential components for the operation of the increasingly complex electricity grid, where dispersed generation is causing powerflows occurring both top-down and bottom-up. Specifically, the combination of ESSs coupled with application-specific control methods can achieve the interdependent objectives of system stakeholders such as the system operator, electrical utilities, retailers, equipment vendors, the government and the electricity customers. The necessity for an accelerated rate of transition to a multi-directional grid arrangement has been exacerbated by the rapid proliferation of distributed renewable energy sources (RESs) that are now price comparable to traditional supply sources. While there are review articles covering ESS technologies and applications as well as the plethora of future advanced grid arrangements that may eventuate, there is none which comprehensively covers individual and aggregated ESS applications and the corresponding benefits, comparing different technology selection methods and providing application-specific controls. Both operational and monetary benefits are identified and critically reviewed from the perspective of the aforementioned stakeholders. Wholesale and retail energy market regimes are also considered for monetisation of the benefits. The control methods that are provided cover both balanced and unbalanced grid conditions. This comprehensive review paper will be of immense value to researchers and practitioners seeking to understand and unpack the aggregated benefits of ESS in the electricity grid.

This work examines the effect of energy storage systems (ESSs) operation on the voltage stability and quality of the local power system. The variation of these two voltage dimensions is expressed in a collective manner by the novel voltage stability and quality index (VSQI). For the calculation of the VSQI , a complete voltage stability curve is required, and the coordinates associated with voltage stability and quality are identified. The distance between the abovementioned coordinates, that collectively indicates the effect of ESSs operation on the two voltage dimensions, is represented by the VSQI. The process for VSQI identification is repeated for each operating scenario, with the studied cases including grid operation prior to ESSs utilisation, grid support performed by a community level ESS, and grid operation with distributed ESSs. The ESSs are powered by renewable energy sources (RESs), and a future scenario of 70% photovoltaic (PV) penetration was examined. Other ESSs applications presented in this work, include time-shifting of the energy produced by RESs, peak load shaving, and reducing the loading levels of transmission lines and of the substation transformer. The above stack of ESSs applications, highlights the multifunctional role of ESSs as support to the grid. A real low voltage (LV) distribution network located in southeast Queensland, Australia was employed for the study.

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Overcoming the technical hurdles to implementing plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) technology into the smart grid is only one aspect of this disruptive transitional process. To ensure the rapid diffusion and efficient integration of PHEV in the smart grid, a range of governance, economic, social and environmental dimensions must also be considered and challenges addressed. Providing a robust governance framework is paramount, as it will drive both positive and perverse industry behaviours. Such frameworks must provide a set of rules and incentives to promote a stable market environment for PHEV roll-out over the long-term. Importantly, a well-designed governance framework will underpin the necessary economic thrust for an PHEV market to get established and grow. Such business drivers are sometimes not immediately obvious and are hard to quantify under current market conditions, such as quantifying the monetary benefits of distributed PHEV for the purpose of grid peak demand management and control. The economic drivers of PHEV are largely related to the capacity and related cost of energy storage and the provision of distributed power systems for resupplying them as required. Social dimensions are often multi-faceted and complex, but without convincing consumers that PHEV is a necessary transformative technology that is also economically and environmentally superior to traditional transportation methods, PHEV will never gain sufficient traction. Moreover, many people are still not convinced that the battery systems used in PHEV, which are mostly composed of Lithium, are sustainable. Proven cradle-to-grave environmentally friendly sourcing and life cycle management strategies for PHEV batteries is essential to ensure that this technology is acknowledged as a better solution than traditional liquid and gas transport fuels. To seize the full suite of opportunities and benefits available from PHEV technology, all of these intertwined challenges must be addressed in an integrated manner. Untangling these issues and many others and then formulating multi-pronged strategies to overcome them in a concurrent fashion, is a challenge, but one which must be undertaken in order to progress PHEV diffusion in society globally. This chapter seeks to unpack these four non-technical dimensions to PHEV diffusion.

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