Desalination concentrate (DC) is a potential medium for microalgal cultivation since it contains an abundance of mineral salts. In this study, the feasibility of growing Chlorella vulgaris with DC was evaluated and the influence of DC concentration on the growth, biomass productivity, and biochemical composition was assessed. Media comprised of DC mixed with bold basal medium (BBM) in different concentrations were prepared for microalga cultivation. A sequential statistical methodology, comprising fractional factorial design and response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to enhance the biomass production. The growth of C. vulgaris was promoted with 75 % BBM+25 % DC compared with the BBM control. C. vulgaris biomass production (0.59 g L −1 ) was observed with 75 % BBM+25 % DC with optimal concentrations of sodium nitrate (0.09 g L −1 ), monobasic potassium phosphate (0.014 g L −1 ), and micronutrient solution (0.20 mL L −1 ). The gradual increase of DC had a strong effect on the biochemical composition of C. vulgaris. Carbohydrate fiber and protein contents were estimated to be 14.4 and 51.3 %, respectively, when the microalgae were cultivated in 75 % BBM +25 % DC. The lipid content (12.5 %) of C. vulgaris cells was highest at the optimized BBM DC concentrations. When grown in the BBM control and optimized BBM+DC media, C. vulgaris produced lipids rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:3 ω3) and monounsaturated fatty acids (C18:1). These results indicated that DC is a feasible alternative for the mass cultivation of C. vulgaris.

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This study's main highlight to the effect of replacement of milk by different proportions of concentrated whey in the elaboration of ice creams and the characterization of their physicochemical and microstructural properties. Ice creams have high levels of total solids, acidity, and low pH values. All ice creams exhibited Newtonian fluid behaviors while the Power and Casson Law model adequately explained the flow properties. Viscosity and hysteresis area increased as a higher ratio of concentrated whey was added. Ice cream formulations containing a higher proportion of milk showed greater brightness, the ice creams showed a greenish-yellow coloring tendency. The overrun values ranged from 27 to 44%, and ice cream with partial replacement of milk by concentrated whey showed greater resistance to melting. The addition of concentrated whey did not influence the size of the ice crystals, fat globules, and air bubble diameters. However, the higher total solids content influenced the texture of the ice creams, promoting smoother and creamy ice creams. These results highlight the application of concentrated whey on the 50% substitution level, thus being an attractive alternative for the food industry, mainly about the cost-benefit and added value to the product, by enhancing the color, flavor, and texture.

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Freeze concentration process was used to concentrate milk until the third stage of freeze concentration. Thus, two samples of ice creams were manufacture, one with milk and the other with concentrated milk from the first stage of block freeze concentration, and denominated ice cream 1 and ice cream 2, respectively. Both ice creams were characterized according to physicochemical characteristics, overrun, microscopy, melting rate, texture, color, and rheological properties. The use of concentrated milk influenced the physicochemical properties of ice cream 2, promoting an increase in the total solids, protein, carbohydrates, and ashes content. Moreover, it was noted that ice cream 2 had a higher overrun, lower firmness, smaller ice crystals, and tended to color greenish and yellowish, however had a higher melting rate and larger hysteresis area. The models of the Power Law and Casson satisfactorily described the rheological behavior of ice creams, which proved to be a Newtonian fluid.

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