Since the description of Lutzomyia longipalpis by Lutz and Neiva more than 100 years ago, much has been written in the scientific literature about this phlebotomine species. Soares and Turco (2003) and Lainson and Rangel (2005) have written extensive reviews focused on vector-host-parasite interactions and American visceral leishmaniasis ecology. However, during the last two decades, the success of Lu. longipalpis in colonising urban environments and its simultaneous geographical spreading have led to new theoretical and operational questions. Therefore, this review updates the general information about this species and notes the more challenging topics regarding the new scenario of urbanisation-spreading and its control in America. Here, we summarise the literature on these issues and the remaining unsolved questions, which pose recommendations for operational research.

The aim of this study was to identify potential blood feeding sources of L. (L.) longipalpis specimens from populations in Northeastern Brazil, endemic areas of American Visceral Leishmaniasis (AVL) and its correlation with the transmission of L. (L.) i. chagasi. The ELISA technique was applied using bird, dog, goat, opossum, equine, feline, human, sheep, and rodent antisera to analyze 609 females, resulting in an overall positivity of 60%. In all municipalities, females showed higher positivity for bird followed by dog antiserum and sand fly specimens were also positive for equine, feline, human, sheep, goat, opossum, and rodent antisera. The finding for 17 combinations of two or three types of blood in some females corroborates the opportunistic habit of this sand fly species. The results demonstrating the association between L. (L.) longipalpis and opossum suggest the need for further evaluation of the real role of this synanthropic mammal in the eco-epidemiology of AVL.

The precipitin test was applied to identify the blood meal sources of Lutzomyia intermedia, collected in two distinct habitats: inside houses and in the peridomicile, in Mesquita, Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil, a transmission area of Leishmania (V.) braziliensis. The following antisera were tested: human, avian, equine, rodent, and opossum. From a total of 370 females analyzed, 128 specimens from the domicile and 59 from the peridomicile reacted with specific antisera. The anthropophily of L. intermedia was confirmed in both habitats; likewise, the feeding of this sand fly species on domestic animals, observed in previous entomological surveys, was confirmed by the strong reactivity with avian, canine, and equine antisera. However, feeding on rodents, mammals frequently found inside and around houses, represents further evidence related to the vector competence of L. intermedia, since synanthropic and sylvatic rodents have been considered a putative reservoir of L. (V.) braziliensis.

SUMMARYThe aim of this study was to identify blood meals of female sandflies captured in the municipality of Governador Valadares, an endemic area of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis, in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. From May 2011 to January 2012, captures were performed using HP light traps in four districts. There were 2,614 specimens (2,090 males and 524 females) captured; 97 engorged females were identified belonging to the species Lutzomyia longipalpis (82.1%) and Lutzomyia cortelezzii (17.9%). Considering simple and mixed feeding, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay revealed a predominance of chicken blood (43.6%) in Lutzomyia longipalpis, showing the important role that chickens exert around the residential areas of Governador Valadares. This finding increases the chances of sandflies contact with other vertebrates and consequently the risk of leishmaniasis transmission.

Leishmaniases are considered serious public health problems, and their geographical expansion has enabled their establishment in urban areas of medium and large cities in Brazil. Continuous processes of deforestation, construction of dams, and hydroelectric plants, among others, cause environmental impact and may favor the increase in the number of human cases of leishmaniases, as well as the establishment of epidemic outbreaks. This scenario reflects the reality of some regions of Brazil, such as Tocantins State, which in recent years has recorded high levels of American visceral leishmaniasis (AVL). This study is aimed to analyze environmental and epidemiological factors related with the spatial and temporal distribution of AVL and with the occurrence of Lutzomyia (Lutzomyia) longipalpis, the main vector of AVL, in the state of Tocantins. The results indicate that the vector is adapted to all environments, especially the ones under human influence, and that anthropogenic environmental impacts can support the development and adaptation of AVL in Brazil. Such information could be applied in control strategies aimed at decreasing AVL incidence.

After the identification of the first SARS-COV-2 infected cases in China, the virus was rapidly disseminated among the distinct continents and the COVID-19 pandemics was announced by the WHO in March 2020. Over time, the epidemiological sceneries varied among countries, according to the adopted mitigation measures and epidemic phase. Recently, a recrudescence of the epidemics has been observed in distinct countries. SARS-CoV-2 can be transmitted by direct or indirect contact. The viral RNA has been detected in stool and other clinical specimens from infected patients and a putative fecal-oral transmission has been argued. Viruses are shed in human excreta, further disposed into the sewerage system or into the environment, in poor sanitation settings. Thus, SARS-CoV-2 RNA has been regularly detected in wastewater and surface water impacted by the direct discharge of sewage. Some studies have reported an association between climatic parameters and an increase in COVID-19 incidence. However, conclusive evidence based in full seasons is needed so far. This mini-review briefly discusses the putative role of climate and environmental factors on SARS-CoV-2 exposure, transmission and circulation patterns. Moreover, some additional challenges in middle and low-income settings are highlighted. Efforts must be driven to categorically understand the relationships between SARS-CoV-2 infection, circulation patterns and climate parameters, as the putative implications of viral persistence and viability in distinct environmental matrices. This information is crucial for COVID-19 control and prevention, especially in middle and low-income settings, already wedged by social inequality, inadequate sanitation and deficient healthcare admission.

Sand flies are dipterans of medical importance, as some species are vectors of American visceral leishmaniasis (AVL). The municipality of João Pessoa (Paraíba, northeastern Brazil), is an endemic region for AVL, having high rates of human and canine cases. The main objective was to evaluate the sand fly fauna among forest fragments and built areas, and its relationship with environmental conditions. HP light traps were placed in the studied areas from March 2019 to July 2021. A total of 2141 specimens of phlebotomines were captured, comprising nine genera and ten species. Temperature and humidity were significant and positive only in built areas. The diversity composition among forest fragments and built areas was different and the AVL vector, Lutzomyia longipalpis, was the most prevalent species in built areas. The study showed that the built areas present differences in their richness and diversity of sand flies in relation to forest fragments, concluding that the conservation of forest areas, even if urban fragments, favors the diversity of phlebotomine species.

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