Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a fatal disease for humans, and no vaccine is currently available. Sand fly salivary proteins have been associated with protection against cutaneous leishmaniasis. To test whether vector salivary proteins can protect against VL, a hamster model was developed involving intradermal inoculation in the ears of 100,000 Leishmania infantum chagasi parasites together with Lutzomyia longipalpis saliva to mimic natural transmission by sand flies. Hamsters developed classical signs of VL rapidly, culminating in a fatal outcome 5-6 months postinfection. Saliva had no effect on the course of infection in this model. Immunization with 16 DNA plasmids coding for salivary proteins of Lu. longipalpis resulted in the identification of LJM19, a novel 11-kDa protein, that protected hamsters against the fatal outcome of VL. LJM19-immunized hamsters maintained a low parasite load that correlated with an overall high IFN-␥/TGF-␤ ratio and inducible NOS expression in the spleen and liver up to 5 months postinfection. Importantly, a delayed-type hypersensitivity response with high expression of IFN-␥ was also noted in the skin of LJM19-immunized hamsters 48 h after exposure to uninfected sand fly bites. Induction of IFN-␥ at the site of bite could partly explain the protection observed in the viscera of LJM19-immunized hamsters through direct parasite killing and/or priming of anti-Leishmania immunity. We have shown that immunity to a defined salivary protein (LJM19) confers powerful protection against the fatal outcome of a parasitic disease, which reinforces the concept of using components of arthropod saliva in vaccine strategies against vector-borne diseases.antisaliva immunity ͉ Leishmania ͉ sand fly saliva ͉ vector-based vaccine

BackgroundSand fly saliva has an array of pharmacological and immunomodulatory components, and immunity to saliva protects against Leishmania infection. In the present study, we have studied the immune response against Lutzomyia intermedia saliva, the main vector of Leishmania braziliensis in Brazil, and the effects of saliva pre-exposure on L. braziliensis infection employing an intradermal experimental model.Methodology/principal findingsBALB/c mice immunized with L. intermedia salivary gland sonicate (SGS) developed a saliva-specific antibody response and a cellular immune response with presence of both IFN-γ and IL-4. The inflammatory infiltrate observed in SGS-immunized mice was comprised of numerous polymorphonuclear and few mononuclear cells. Mice challenged with live L. braziliensis in the presence of saliva were not protected although lesion development was delayed. The inoculation site and draining lymph node showed continuous parasite replication and low IFN-γ to IL-4 ratio, indicating that pre-exposure to L. intermedia saliva leads to modulation of the immune response. Furthermore, in an endemic area of cutaneous leishmaniasis, patients with active lesions displayed higher levels of anti-L. intermedia saliva antibodies when compared to individuals with a positive skin test result for Leishmania.ConclusionThese results show that pre-exposure to sand fly saliva plays an important role in the outcome of cutaneous leishmaniasis, in both mice and humans. They emphasize possible hurdles in the development of vaccines based on sand fly saliva and the need to identify and select the individual salivary candidates instead of using whole salivary mixture that may favor a non-protective response.

Antibody responses to salivary gland sonicate (SGS) from Lutzomyia longipalpis were investigated using serum samples from individuals living in an area where visceral leishmaniasis is endemic. Individuals were classified into 2 groups, according to the alteration of their responses to Leishmania chagasi antigen over the course of 6 months. Group 1 included children who experienced anti-L. chagasi seroconversion from negative to positive; group 2 included children who experienced delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response to L. chagasi antigen conversion from negative to positive. Individuals who experienced seroconversion against L. chagasi antigens did not have increased anti-saliva antibody response, whereas those who developed a positive anti-L. chagasi DTH response had increased immunoglobulin (Ig) G, IgG1 and IgE anti-SGS antibody levels. Despite wide variation, serum samples from individuals in group 2 recognized more bands in SGS than did those from individuals in group 1. This simultaneous appearance of anti-saliva humoral response and anti-L. chagasi cell-mediated immunity supports the hypothesis that induction of immune response against SGS can facilitate induction of a protective response against leishmaniasis.

Experiments in animals verified that phlebotomine saliva enhances Leishmania infection, and vaccination with saliva prevents disease. We have shown that individuals from an endemic area of visceral leishmaniasis displayed robust antibody responses to saliva from the vector Lutzomyia longipalpis, which correlated with anti-parasite cellmediated immunity. Here, we explored human anti-saliva responses following exposure to sand flies, using an in vivo bite model in which normal volunteers were exposed four times to 30 laboratory-reared Lu. longipalpis. Following the third exposure, normal volunteers developed diverse dermatological reactions at the site of insect bite. Serum from normal volunteers displayed high levels of anti-salivary gland sonicate IgG1, IgG4 and IgE as well as several salivary gland proteins. Furthermore, following in vitro stimulation with salivary gland sonicate, there was an increased frequency of CD4 + CD25 + and CD8 + CD25 + T cells as well as IFN-c and IL-10 synthesis. Strikingly, 1 year after the first exposure, PBMC from the volunteers displayed recall IFN-c responses that correlated with a significant reduction in infection rates using a macrophage-lymphocyte autologous culture. Together, these data suggest that human immunization against sand fly saliva is feasible and recall responses are obtained even 1 year after exposure, opening perspectives for vaccination in man.

Background Leishmania is transmitted by female sand flies and deposited together with saliva, which contains a vast repertoire of pharmacologically active molecules that contribute to the establishment of the infection. The exposure to vector saliva induces an immune response against its components that can be used as a marker of exposure to the vector. Performing large-scale serological studies to detect vector exposure has been limited by the difficulty in obtaining sand fly saliva. Here, we validate the use of two sand fly salivary recombinant proteins as markers for vector exposure.Methodology/principal findingsELISA was used to screen human sera, collected in an area endemic for visceral leishmaniasis, against the salivary gland sonicate (SGS) or two recombinant proteins (rLJM11 and rLJM17) from Lutzomyia longipalpis saliva. Antibody levels before and after SGS seroconversion (n = 26) were compared using the Wilcoxon signed rank paired test. Human sera from an area endemic for VL which recognize Lu. longipalpis saliva in ELISA also recognize a combination of rLJM17 and rLJM11. We then extended the analysis to include 40 sera from individuals who were seropositive and 40 seronegative to Lu. longipalpis SGS. Each recombinant protein was able to detect anti-saliva seroconversion, whereas the two proteins combined increased the detection significantly. Additionally, we evaluated the specificity of the anti-Lu. longipalpis response by testing 40 sera positive to Lutzomyia intermedia SGS, and very limited (2/40) cross-reactivity was observed. Receiver-operator characteristics (ROC) curve analysis was used to identify the effectiveness of these proteins for the prediction of anti-SGS positivity. These ROC curves evidenced the superior performance of rLJM17+rLJM11. Predicted threshold levels were confirmed for rLJM17+rLJM11 using a large panel of 1,077 serum samples.ConclusionOur results show the possibility of substituting Lu. longipalpis SGS for two recombinant proteins, LJM17 and LJM11, in order to probe for vector exposure in individuals residing in endemic areas.

Saliva of bloodfeeding arthropods has been incriminated in facilitating the establishment of parasite in their host. We report on the leukocyte chemoattractive effect of salivary gland homogenate (SGH) from Lutzomyia longipalpis on saliva-induced inflammation in an air pouch model. SGH (0.5 pair/animal) was inoculated in the air pouch formed in the back of BALB/c or C57BL/6 mice. L. longipalpis SGH induced a significant influx of macrophages in BALB/c but not in C57BL/6 mice. SGH-induced cell recruitment reached a peak at 12 h after inoculation and was higher than that induced by the LPS control. This differential cell recruitment in BALB/c mice was directly correlated to an increase in CCL2/MCP-1 expression in the air pouch lining tissue. In fact, treatment with bindarit, an inhibitor of CCL2/MCP-1 synthesis, and also with a specific anti-MCP-1 mAb resulted in drastic reduction of macrophage recruitment and inhibition of CCL2/MCP-1 expression in the lining tissue. CCL2/MCP-1 production was also seen in vitro when J774 murine macrophages were exposed to L. longipalpis SGH. The SGH effect was abrogated by preincubation with serum containing anti-SGH IgG Abs as well as in mice previously sensitized with L. longipalpis bites. Interestingly, the combination of SGH with Leishmania chagasi induced an increased recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages when compared with L. chagasi alone. Taken together these results suggest that SGH not only induces the recruitment of a greater number of macrophages by enhancing CCL2/MCP-1 production but also synergizes with L. chagasi to recruit more inflammatory cells to the site of inoculation.

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Background Leishmania parasites are transmitted in the presence of sand fly saliva. Together with the parasite, the sand fly injects salivary components that change the environment at the feeding site. Mice immunized with Phlebotomus papatasi salivary gland (SG) homogenate are protected against Leishmania major infection, while immunity to Lutzomyia intermedia SG homogenate exacerbated experimental Leishmania braziliensis infection. In humans, antibodies to Lu. intermedia saliva are associated with risk of acquiring L. braziliensis infection. Despite these important findings, there is no information regarding the repertoire of Lu. intermedia salivary proteins.Methods and FindingsA cDNA library from the Salivary Glands (SGs) of wild-caught Lu. intermedia was constructed, sequenced, and complemented by a proteomic approach based on 1D SDS PAGE and mass/mass spectrometry to validate the transcripts present in this cDNA library. We identified the most abundant transcripts and proteins reported in other sand fly species as well as novel proteins such as neurotoxin-like proteins, peptides with ML domain, and three small peptides found so far only in this sand fly species. DNA plasmids coding for ten selected transcripts were constructed and used to immunize BALB/c mice to study their immunogenicity. Plasmid Linb-11—coding for a 4.5-kDa protein—induced a cellular immune response and conferred protection against L. braziliensis infection. This protection correlated with a decreased parasite load and an increased frequency of IFN-γ-producing cells.ConclusionsWe identified the most abundant and novel proteins present in the SGs of Lu. intermedia, a vector of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Americas. We also show for the first time that immunity to a single salivary protein from Lu. intermedia can protect against cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by L. braziliensis.