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Integrated approach to the assessment of CO 2 e-mitigation measures for the road passenger transport sector in Bahrain AbstractThe transport sector is one of the fastest-growing energy-consuming sectors in the world and it contributes greatly to emissions of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2 e). In Bahrain, CO 2 e emissions from the transport sector grew by an average of 8% annually between 1994 and 2006. The aim of this research was to develop an integrated approach to assess the measures adopted to reduce CO 2 e emissions by the transport sector within the context of climate change mitigation. This approach used the multi-criteria analysis methodology of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to embed conventional assessment methods and a participatory approach. Three extensions to the original AHP methodology were developed: multi-AHP models, scenario packaging, and the examination of the plausibility of the results. The AHP results showed that certain fuel economy standards achieved the highest scores against five qualitative and quantitative criteria. Using socially and politically acceptable options, an integrated approach to CO 2 e mitigation could achieve a reduction in emissions of around 22% by 2030 (compared with 2010), at a cost of USD 112 per metric tonne of avoided CO 2 e emissions. Results from surveys of policymakers, experts, and the general public indicated that the outcomes of scenario packaging were plausible. The contributions of this research are two-fold. First, for the first time in Bahrain, the preferences of the general public have been considered and integrated with both the preferences of policymakers and experts and the results obtained from conventional assessment methods. Second, a structured approach for the integration of different assessment methods, transferable to other contexts, was developed and examined. Furthermore, multi-AHP models were introduced that can reflect the preferences of different concerned groups. Applications of this approach include 3 assessment of the implementation of mitigation measures that could affect a number of concerned groups, decision making in energy-consuming sectors, and development of mitigation policy packages.

There is much optimism that the 2015 Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention will yield an agreement on mitigation of climate change, to become effective in 2020. In this context, Bahrain represents a developing country with insufficient data to assess mitigation opportunities: its per capita carbon emissions rank among the world's highest, yet there has been no research on the reduction potential of its rapidly growing transport sector. We examine this reduction potential and the costs of various mitigation measures and, further, explore barriers and the view of policymakers and experts. Potential benefits of combined mitigation scenarios are also identified based on their acceptability. We adopt a modified participatory method to develop the scenarios, using the Long-range Energy Alternative Planning (LEAP) modeling system, and find that an integrated policy approach can deliver a 23% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions, costing 108 United States dollars per avoided metric tonne, with politically acceptable scenarios.Better performance, however, would require less acceptable approaches. These findings are 2 significant for decision making in Bahrain and other Gulf Cooperation Council countries; national target preparation and the setting of fuel economy standards should be begun promptly. We offer lessons to other developing countries on the timely regulation of technical specifications and numbers of passenger vehicles. Participatory approaches to the assessment of mitigation measures can advance environmentally effective, economically feasible and politically acceptable scenarios. The global community can use these results to provide necessary technical and financial assistance to developing countries.

Mitigating climate change to limit the global temperature increase (relative to pre-industrial temperatures) to 2 °C is receiving considerable attention around the world. Here, historical and future carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions from municipal solid waste (MSW) in Bahrain were calculated using the revised Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 1996 and IPCC 2006 methods. The extent to which waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies can contribute to climate change mitigation was assessed by performing a multicriteria analysis. The results indicated that CO2e emissions from MSW in Bahrain have been increasing since the Askar landfill was constructed in 1986. Emission recalculations indicated that CO2e emissions from MSW contribute 6.2% of total emissions in Bahrain rather than the 11.6% reported in the second national communication. Methane emissions from MSW in 2030 are predicted to be 22–63 Gg. The WtE technologies anaerobic digestion and landfill gas recovery gave the best and gasification the worst multicriteria analysis model results. A database of WtE plants around the world should be compiled to allow decisions around the world to be based on best practices. The potential for maximizing energy recovery and decreasing costs needs to be investigated to allow WtE plants to compete better with renewable and nonrenewable energy sources.

PurposeBahrain has set a national target of achieving carbon neutrality by 2060, with an interim goal of a 30% reduction in CO2e emissions by 2035. The aim of this policy brief is to provide insights on how carbon neutrality in Bahrain can be achieved.Design/methodology/approachA review of literature related to climate change mitigation in general, and that related to Bahrain in particular, was carried out.FindingsGiven that the carbon intensity of Bahrain's economy is relatively high, achieving carbon neutrality requires not only technologies for reducing CO2e emissions at the source and enhanced carbon sinks, but it also requires the introduction of a circular economy culture and efforts to foster pro-environmental behavior within the population. The involvement of different stakeholders in the journey toward carbon neutrality is critical, along with the formulation of requisite policies regulating the roles of technology, behavior and research.Originality/valuePathways to achieve carbon neutrality in Bahrain were explored, and areas for policy focus were recommended.

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The term sustainable transport first appeared in the literature over two decades ago. An extensive literature has subsequently evolved, ranging from attempts to clarify the concept to explorations of its actual implementation worldwide. Yet, structured approaches for achieving sustainable transport in developing countries, where data are limited, remain rare. This paper presents a pragmatic methodological framework for adopting sustainable transport measures related to passenger cars in Bahrain. The proposed assessment process comprises four steps: analysing the current state, identifying potential measures, assessing these measures, and aggregating the results. The analysis revealed that while achieving sustainable transport in Bahrain is feasible using regulatory and economic measures, fiscal incentives to car technologies may be required to ensure public acceptance. While the focus of this paper is on Bahrain, the proposed methodology is readily applicable to other countries where data are limited.

The management of municipal solid waste (MSW) appears as a challenge for many countries in the world. The rapidly increasing amounts of waste and the consequent potential impacts necessitate proper planning and management. This paper assesses the management of the MSW in Kuwait using the driving forces-pressures-state-impacts-responses (DPSIR) framework. Applying the DPSIR method allows for understanding the causes behind the current state related to MSW along with the potential impacts and responses undertaken so far. The results of the analysis show that the generation of MSW is highly correlated with the population and economic growth in Kuwait. The per capita MSW is relatively high reaching 1.6 kg/capita/year. There are several potential impacts associated with the current practices of MSWM in Kuwait. Yet, only few of them have been assessed. Kuwait has enacted the Environmental Protection Law No. 42 in 2014 where the management of the MSW is emphasized. This paper recommends the calculation of a number of waste-related performance indicators. It also recommends the conduct of a social survey for a better understanding of the consumption patterns and variations associated with the different population groups and seasons. Finally, the initiation of a regional waste-related network is highly recommended to foster collaboration and share best practices with other Gulf Cooperation Council countries.