Abstract. A large data set of over 4,700 records of avian mercury (Hg) levels in northeastern North America was compiled and evaluated. As Hg emissions remain poorly regulated in the United States and Canada, atmospheric deposition patterns and associated ecological responses continue to elicit interest by landscape managers, conservation biologists, policy makers, and the general public. How avian Hg exposure is interpreted greatly influences decision-making practices. The geographic extent and size of this data set is valuable in understanding the factors that affect the exposure of Hg to birds. Featured are differences found among tissues, major aquatic habitats and geographic areas, between age class and gender, and among species. While Hg concentrations in egg and blood reflect short-term Hg exposure, Hg concentrations in liver and feather provide insight into long-term Hg exposure. Blood is a particularly important matrix for relating site-specific exposure to methylmercury (MeHg). The level of MeHg is generally 5-10x greater in adults compared to nestlings. Age also influences MeHg bioaccumulation, particularly for individuals where MeHg intake exceeds elimination. Gender is of interpretive concern when evaluating Hg exposure for species exhibiting sexual dimorphism and niche partitioning. Based on two indicator species, the belted kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon) and bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), we found MeHg availability increased from marine, to estuarine and riverine systems, and was greatest in lake habitats. A large sample of >1,800 blood and egg Hg levels from the common loon (Gavia immer) facilitated a suitable comparison of geographic differences. Although some clusters of highly elevated Hg exposure (i.e., blood levels >3.0 lg/g, ww and egg levels >1.3 lg/g, ww) were associated with hydrological and biogeochemical factors known to increase MeHg production and availability, others were not. Geographic areas without a relationship between Hg exposure and biogeochemical processes were associated with emission or waterborne point sources. Differences in Hg exposure among species are primarily correlated with trophic position and availability of MeHg. Although piscivorous species were repeatedly *To whom correspondence should be addressed: Tel.: 207-839-7600; Fax: 207-839-7655; E-mail: david.evers@briloon.org Ecotoxicology, 14, 193-221, 2005 Ó 2005 shown to have some of the highest MeHg levels of the 38 species analyzed, insectivorous birds in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats (such as montane areas) were also found with elevated MeHg levels. A better understanding of the factors confounding interpretation of Hg exposure provides an effective basis for choice of indicator species and tissues according to 12 selected scenarios. This and the national need for spatiotemporal monitoring of MeHg availability require careful consideration of indicator species choice. Only then will local, regional, continental, and even global monitoring efforts be effective.

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Fish-eating birds can be exposed to levels of dietary methylmercury (MeHg) known or suspected to adversely affect normal behavior and reproduction, but little is known regarding Hg's subtle effects on the avian brain. In the current study, we explored relationships among Hg, Se, and neurochemical receptors and enzymes in two fish-eating birds--common loons (Gavia immer) and bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). In liver, both species demonstrated a wide range of total Hg (THg) concentrations, substantial demethylation of MeHg, and a co-accumulation of Hg and Se. In liver, there were molar excesses of Se over Hg up to about 50-60 microg/g THg, above which there was an approximate 1:1 molar ratio of Hg:Se in both species. However, in brain, bald eagles displayed a greater apparent ability to demethylate MeHg than common loons. There were molar excesses of Se over Hg in brains of bald eagles across the full range of THg concentrations, whereas common loons often had extreme molar excesses of Hg in their brains, with a higher proportion of THg remaining as MeHg compared with eagles. There were significant positive correlations between brain THg and muscarinic cholinergic receptor concentrations in both species studied; whereas significant negative correlations were observed between N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor levels and brain Hg concentration. There were no significant correlations between brain Se and neurochemical receptors or enzymes (cholinesterase and monoamine oxidase) in either species. Our findings suggest that there are significant differences between common loons and bald eagles with respect to cerebral metabolism and toxicodynamics of MeHg and Se. These interspecies differences may influence relative susceptibility to MeHg toxicity; however, neurochemical responses to Hg in both species were similar.

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Landfills are used as the primary means for the disposal of municipal solid waste in Canada. In the present study, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and other flame retardants (FRs) were determined in fresh European starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) eggs collected in 2009, 2010, and 2011 from nest boxes established within, adjacent to, and 10 and 40 km distant to five major urban centers across Canada, i.e., Vancouver, British Columbia (BC); Calgary, Alberta (AB); Hamilton, Ontario (ON); Montréal, Québec (QC); and Halifax, Nova Scotia (NS). Nest boxes were located in several land use types: urban industrial areas (districts of industrial activity within city limits), landfill sites (adjacent to cities), and rural (agricultural) sites located 10 and 40 km distant from the major urban centers, as well as a national reference site. Of the 14 PBDE congeners and 16 non-PBDE FR substances determined in the starling eggs, BDE-17, -28, -47, -49, -66, -85, -99, -100, -138, -153, -154, -183, and -209, Dechlorane Plus isomers (anti and syn), and bis(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromophthalate (BEHTBP) were most frequently quantifiable. The data revealed orders of magnitude greater PBDE concentrations in eggs from starlings nesting in landfill sites (median: 28-280 ng/g wet weight) relative to those from urban industrial and rural environments. However, the percent fractional composition of the PBDE congener patterns did not vary significantly between the types of land uses or between years. Additionally, the median ∑PBDE concentration in eggs from landfill sites and the human population density of the metropolitan region that the landfill serves were highly correlated (r(2) = 0.998, p < 0.001). As the first transcontinental effort in assessing FR contamination in Canadian terrestrial ecosystems, the present study strongly suggest that landfills are an important FR source to starlings nesting nearby and that other terrestrial organisms could also be similarly exposed.