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Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a common pathogen that causes pneumonia and bronchiolitis in infants and young children. Our previous study showed that tangeretin from Citrus reticulate possessed potent in vitro anti-RSV effects comparable to that of ribavirin. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the in vivo anti-RSV activity of tangeretin in 3-week-old male BALB/c mice. A plaque reduction assay and fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction (FQ-PCR) showed that tangeretin inhibited RSV replication in the lung of mice. Moreover, a luminex assay indicated tangeretin relieved RSV-induced lung inflammation by attenuating interleukin (IL)-1β secretion. Possible anti-inflammatory mechanisms of tangeretin were preliminarily explored using a RSV-infected macrophage model. A FQ-PCR, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and luciferase assay revealed that tangeretin inhibited RSV-induced inflammation by suppressing nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation. This study demonstrates that tangeretin inhibited RSV replication and RSV-induced lung inflammation in vivo and may be useful in preventing and treating RSV infections and inflammation.

We conducted a systematic review to compare resistance to third-generation cephalosporins (TGCs) in Shigella strains between Europe-America and Asia-Africa from 1998 to 2012 based on a literature search of computerized databases. In Asia-Africa, the prevalence of resistance of total and different subtypes to ceftriaxone, cefotaxime and ceftazidime increased markedly, with a total prevalence of resistance up to 14·2% [95% confidence interval (CI) 3·9-29·4], 22·6% (95% CI 4·8-48·6) and 6·2% (95% CI 3·8-9·1) during 2010-2012, respectively. By contrast, resistance rates to these TGCs in Europe-America remained relatively low--less than 1·0% during the 15 years. A noticeable finding was that certain countries both in Europe-America and Asia-Africa, had a rapid rising trend in the prevalence of resistance of S. sonnei, which even outnumbered S. flexneri in some periods. Moreover, comparison between countries showed that currently the most serious problem concerning resistance to these TGCs appeared in Vietnam, especially for ceftriaxone, China, especially for cefotaxime and Iran, especially for ceftazidime. These data suggest that monitoring of the drug resistance of Shigella strains should be strengthened and that rational use of antibiotics is required.

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