Many central synapses contain a single presynaptic active zone and a single postsynaptic density. Vesicular release statistics at such "simple synapses" indicate that they contain a small complement of docking sites where vesicles repetitively dock and fuse. In this work, we investigate functional and morphological aspects of docking sites at simple synapses made between cerebellar parallel fibers and molecular layer interneurons. Using immunogold labeling of SDS-treated freeze-fracture replicas, we find that Ca v 2.1 channels form several clusters per active zone with about nine channels per cluster. The mean value and range of intersynaptic variation are similar for Ca v 2.1 cluster numbers and for functional estimates of docking-site numbers obtained from the maximum numbers of released vesicles per action potential. Both numbers grow in relation with synaptic size and decrease by a similar extent with age between 2 wk and 4 wk postnatal. Thus, the mean docking-site numbers were 3.15 at 2 wk (range: 1-10) and 2.03 at 4 wk (range: 1-4), whereas the mean numbers of Ca v 2.1 clusters were 2.84 at 2 wk (range: 1-8) and 2.37 at 4 wk (range: 1-5). These changes were accompanied by decreases of miniature current amplitude (from 93 pA to 56 pA), active-zone surface area (from 0.0427 μm 2 to 0.0234 μm 2 ), and initial success rate (from 0.609 to 0.353), indicating a tightening of synaptic transmission with development. Altogether, these results suggest a close correspondence between the number of functionally defined vesicular docking sites and that of clusters of voltage-gated calcium channels.neurotransmitter release | active zone | calcium channel | release site | parallel fiber I n presynaptic terminals, the active zone (AZ) represents a highly specialized structure allowing the binding and Ca 2+ -dependent release of synaptic vesicles (SVs) (1). Fluctuation analysis of synaptic signals suggests the presence of one or several functional units per AZ (2, 3). These units are either called "release sites" or "docking sites," and their number per AZ represents the maximum SV output that this structure can provide per action potential (AP). In recent years, optical methods have been developed to record single-SV release (4). Notably, studies using superresolution and total internal reflection fluorescence imaging in functioning central synapses have provided information on the kinetics (5) and subsynaptic localization (6) of single-SV docking and release. Despite these advances, electrophysiological methods remain the most rapid and sensitive method to assess SV exocytosis at central synapses such as the calyx of Held (7) or cerebellar mossy fiber terminals (8). In recent years, electrophysiological recordings performed at special synapses containing a single AZ and a single postsynaptic density (PSD), called "simple synapses," revealed a fixed maximum in the number of SVs that can be released per AZ by a short calcium stimulus (9-11), providing a direct evaluation of the number of docking sites per AZ. This number ran...

Glutamate-induced excitotoxicity, the most common pathological mechanism leading to neuronal death, may occur even with normal levels of glutamate if it coincides with a persistent enhancement of neuronal excitability. Neurons expressing nitric oxide (NO) synthase (NOS-I), which is upregulated in many human chronic neurodegenerative diseases, are highly susceptible to neurodegeneration. We hypothesized that chronic production of NO in damaged neurons may increase their intrinsic excitability via modulation of resting or "leak" K ϩ currents. Peripheral XIIth nerve injury in adult rats induced de novo NOS-I expression and an increased incidence of lowthreshold motor units, the latter being prevented by chronic inhibition of the neuronal NO/cGMP pathway. Accordingly, sustained synthesis of NO maintained an enhanced basal activity in injured motoneurons that was slowly reverted (over the course of 2-3 h) by NOS-I inhibitors. In slice preparations, persistent, but not acute, activation of the NO/cGMP pathway evoked a robust augment in motoneuron excitability independent of synaptic activity. Furthermore, chronic activation of the NO/cGMP pathway fully suppressed TWIK-related acid-sensitive K ϩ (TASK) currents through a protein kinase G (PKG)-dependent mechanism. Finally, we found evidence for the involvement of this long-term mechanism in regulating membrane excitability of motoneurons, because their pH-sensitive currents were drastically reduced by nerve injury. This NO/cGMP/PKG-mediated modulation of TASK conductances might represent a new pathological mechanism that leads to hyperexcitability and sensitizes neurons to excitotoxic damage. It could explain why de novo expression of NOS-I and/or its overexpression makes them susceptible to neurodegeneration under pathological conditions.

Central mammalian synapses release synaptic vesicles in dedicated structures called docking/release sites. It has been assumed that when voltage-dependent calcium entry is sufficiently large, synaptic output attains a maximum value of one synaptic vesicle per action potential and per site. Here we use deconvolution to count synaptic vesicle output at single sites (mean site number per synapse: 3.6). When increasing calcium entry with tetraethylammonium in 1.5 mM external calcium concentration, we find that synaptic output saturates at 0.22 vesicle per site, not at 1 vesicle per site. Fitting the results with current models of calcium-dependent exocytosis indicates that the 0.22 vesicle limit reflects the probability of docking sites to be occupied by synaptic vesicles at rest, as only docked vesicles can be released. With 3 mM external calcium, the maximum output per site increases to 0.47, indicating an increase in docking site occupancy as a function of external calcium concentration.

Background: The FABP2 gene encodes for the intestinal FABP (IFABP) protein, which is expressed only in intestinal enterocytes. A polymorphism at codon 54 in exon 2 of the FABP2 gene exchanges an Alanine (Ala), in the small helical region of the protein, for Threonine (Thr). Given the potential physiological role of the Ala54Thr FABP2 polymorphism, we assess in this study the local population frequency and analyze possible associations with five selected markers, i.e. glycemia, total cholesterol, body mass index (BMI), hypertension, and high Cardiovascular Risk Index (CVR index).

It has been known for a long time that inositol-trisphosphate (IP3) receptors are present in the axon of certain types of mammalian neurons, but their functional role has remained unexplored. Here we show that localized photolysis of IP3 induces spatially constrained calcium rises in Purkinje cell axons. Confocal immunohistology reveals that the axon initial segment (AIS), as well as terminals onto deep cerebellar cells, express specific subtypes of Gα/q and phospholipase C (PLC) molecules, together with the upstream purinergic receptor P2Y1. By contrast, intermediate parts of the axon express another set of Gα/q and PLC molecules, indicating two spatially segregated signaling cascades linked to IP3 generation. This prompted a search for distinct actions of IP3 in different parts of Purkinje cell axons. In the AIS, we found that local applications of the specific P2Y1R agonist MRS2365 led to calcium elevation, and that IP3 photolysis led to inhibition of action potential firing. In synaptic terminals on deep cerebellar nuclei neurons, we found that photolysis of both IP3 and ATP led to GABA release. We propose that axonal IP3 receptors can inhibit action potential firing and increase neurotransmitter release, and that these effects are likely controlled by purinergic receptors. Altogether our results suggest a rich and diverse functional role of IP3 receptors in axons of mammalian neurons.

Pre-eclampsia is a multifactorial and multisystemic disease of unknown etiology that constitutes an important cause of maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. 1 Worldwide, 76 000 women and 500 000 newborns die each year as a result of pre-eclampsia.Furthermore, women in low-income countries are at a higher risk of developing this disease compared with those in high-income countries. 2 Pre-eclampsia is a placental disease, with a wide range of symptoms arising from a decrease in organic perfusion related to endothelial activation and vasospasm. 3 Pre-eclampsia has been defined as de novo arterial hypertension after 20 weeks of gestation, associated with any of the following manifestations: proteinuria, maternal organic dysfunction (renal, hepatic, neurologic, and hematologic) and uteroplacental dysfunction. 4,5 Pre-eclampsia is classified on clinical-analytical characteristics as mild pre-eclampsia: blood pressure (BP) at least 140/90 mmHg

Platinum analogs are commonly used for cancer treatment. There is increasing interest in finding biomarkers which could predict and overcome resistance, because to date there is no reliable predictive/prognostic marker for these compounds. Here we studied the immunohistochemical expression of proteins involved in DNA damage response and repair (γH2AX, 53BP1, ERCC1, MLH1, and MSH2) in primary tumor tissues from patients treated with platinum-based chemotherapy. Levels and localization of Heat Shock Protein (HSP)27 and phospho-(Thr5/7)-HSP90α (p-HSP90α) were also determined. The implications in clinical response, disease-free survival and overall survival were analyzed. High γH2AX and 53BP1 expressions were associated with poor clinical response. Nuclear p-HSP90α, as well as nuclear absence and low cytoplasmic expression of HSP27 correlated with good response. Patients with high γH2AX and high cytoplasmic HSP27 expressions had shorter overall survival and disease-free survival. MLH1, MSH2, or ERCC1 were not associated with clinical response or survival. We report the potential utility of p-HSP90α, HSP27, γH2AX, and 53BP1 as predictive/prognostic markers for platinum-based chemotherapy. We present the first study that evaluates the predictive and prognostic value of p-HSP90α in primary tumors. Our research opens new possibilities for clinical oncology and shows the usefulness of immunohistochemistry for predicting chemotherapy response and prognosis in cancer.

AbstRACt. Deletions/duplications in the Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) gene account for 60 to 70% of all alterations. A new technique, multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA), has been described that allows the detection of large genetic rearrangements by simultaneous amplification of up to 45 target sequences. The present article is based on the diagnosis of the first Argentine affected families by the application of MLPA. DNA samples from patients with and without a previous diagnosis were included. MLPA assays were performed according to manufacturer recommendations. Polymerase chain reaction and direct sequencing were performed when a single-exon deletion was detected. Results were analyzed using the Gene Marker v1.6 and Sequencing Analysis v5.2 software. In the samples with a previous diagnosis (as identified by short tandem repeat-polymerase chain reaction analysis), MLPA confirmed in some samples the same deletion and detected in others a larger deleted fragment. This enabled the prediction of the expected male phenotype. One deletion and one duplication were detected in patients without previous diagnosis. In this study, we investigated the applicability of MLPA in our country. Our results showed a 100% confirmation of the deleted fragments detected by short tandem repeat segregation analysis. Moreover, in some cases, the MLPA assay was able to refine the breakpoints involved. In addition, MLPA identified deletions/duplications in samples without previous diagnosis. In comparison to the available diagnosis strategies in Argentina, MLPA is less time-consuming, and spans the complete coding region of DMD. The application of MLPA will improve the genetic diagnosis of DMD/Becker muscular dystrophy in our country.