IntroductionLoneliness has social and health implications. The aim of this article is to evaluate the association of loneliness with all-cause mortality.MethodsPubmed, PsycINFO, CINAHL and Scopus databases were searched through June 2016 for published articles that measured loneliness and mortality. The main characteristics and the effect size values of each article were extracted. Moreover, an evaluation of the quality of the articles included was also carried out. A meta-analysis was performed firstly with all the included articles and secondly separating by gender, using a random effects model.ResultsA total of 35 articles involving 77220 participants were included in the systematic review. Loneliness is a risk factor for all-cause mortality [pooled HR = 1.22, 95% CI = (1.10, 1.35), p < 0.001] for both genders together, and for women [pooled HR = 1.26, 95% CI = (1.07, 1.48); p = 0.005] and men [pooled HR = 1.44; 95% CI = (1.19, 1.76); p < 0.001] separately.ConclusionsLoneliness shows a harmful effect for all-cause mortality and this effect is slightly stronger in men than in women. Moreover, the impact of loneliness was independent from the quality evaluation of each article and the effect of depression.

Purpose. Loneliness and depression are associated, in particular in older adults. Less is known about the role of social networks in this relationship. The present study analyzes the influence of social networks in the relationship between loneliness and depression in the older adult population in Spain. Results. Feelings of loneliness were more prevalent in women, those who were younger (50-65), single, separated, divorced or widowed, living in a rural setting, with a lower frequency of social interactions and smaller social network, and with major depression. Among people feeling lonely, those with depression were more frequently married and had a small social network. Among those not feeling lonely, depression was associated with being previously married. In depressed people, feelings of loneliness were associated with having a small social network; while among those without depression, feelings of loneliness were associated with being married. Conclusion.The type and size of social networks have a role in the relationship between loneliness and depression. Increasing social interaction may be more beneficial than strategies based on improving maladaptive social cognition in loneliness to reduce the prevalence of depression among Spanish older adults.

Objective This study aimed to examine the association of loneliness and social isolation on cognition over a 3‐year follow‐up period in middle‐ and older‐aged adults. Methods Data from a Spanish nationally representative sample were analyzed (n = 1691; aged 50 years or older). Loneliness, social isolation, and cognition (immediate recall, delayed recall, verbal fluency, forward digit span, backward digit span, and a composite cognitive score) were assessed both at baseline and at follow‐up. Adjusted generalized estimating equations models were performed. Results Loneliness was significantly associated with lower scores in the composite cognitive score, immediate and delayed recall, verbal fluency, and backward digit span (B = −0.14 to B = −3.16; P < .05) and with a more rapid decline from baseline to follow‐up in two out of six cognitive tests. Higher social isolation was associated with lower scores in the composite cognitive score, verbal fluency, and forward digit span (B = −0.06 to B = −0.85; P < .05). The effect of loneliness and social isolation on cognition remained significant after the exclusion of individuals with depression. Conclusions Both loneliness and social isolation are associated with decreased cognitive function over a 3‐year follow‐up period. The development of interventions that include the enhancement of social participation and the maintenance of emotionally supportive relationships might contribute to cognitive decline prevention and risk reduction.

Our results suggest that subjective well-being is associated with a decreased risk of mortality. Longitudinal studies examining changing levels of well-being and their relationship to longevity would be required to establish a cause-effect relationship. Establishing such a causal relationship would strengthen the case for policy interventions to improve the population subjective well-being to produce longevity gains combined with optimizing quality of life.

ObjectiveIt is widely recognized that social networks and loneliness have effects on health. The present study assesses the differential association that the components of the social network and the subjective perception of loneliness have with health, and analyzes whether this association is different across different countries.MethodsA total of 10 800 adults were interviewed in Finland, Poland and Spain. Loneliness was assessed by means of the 3-item UCLA Loneliness Scale. Individuals’ social networks were measured by asking about the number of members in the network, how often they had contacts with these members, and whether they had a close relationship. The differential association of loneliness and the components of the social network with health was assessed by means of hierarchical linear regression models, controlling for relevant covariates.ResultsIn all three countries, loneliness was the variable most strongly correlated with health after controlling for depression, age, and other covariates. Loneliness contributed more strongly to health than any component of the social network. The relationship between loneliness and health was stronger in Finland (|β| = 0.25) than in Poland (|β| = 0.16) and Spain (|β| = 0.18). Frequency of contact was the only component of the social network that was moderately correlated with health.ConclusionsLoneliness has a stronger association with health than the components of the social network. This association is similar in three different European countries with different socio-economic and health characteristics and welfare systems. The importance of evaluating and screening feelings of loneliness in individuals with health problems should be taken into account. Further studies are needed in order to be able to confirm the associations found in the present study and infer causality.

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