Abstract. We present Nemo-Nordic, a Baltic and North Sea model based on the NEMO ocean engine. Surrounded by highly industrialized countries, the Baltic and North seas and their assets associated with shipping, fishing and tourism are vulnerable to anthropogenic pressure and climate change. Ocean models providing reliable forecasts and enabling climatic studies are important tools for the shipping infrastructure and to get a better understanding of the effects of climate change on the marine ecosystems. Nemo-Nordic is intended to be a tool for both short-term and long-term simulations and to be used for ocean forecasting as well as process and climatic studies. Here, the scientific and technical choices within Nemo-Nordic are introduced, and the reasons behind the design of the model and its domain and the inclusion of the two seas are explained. The model's ability to represent barotropic and baroclinic dynamics, as well as the vertical structure of the water column, is presented. Biases are shown and discussed. The short-term capabilities of the model are presented, especially its capabilities to represent sea level on an hourly timescale with a high degree of accuracy. We also show that the model can represent longer timescales, with a focus on the major Baltic inflows and the variability in deep-water salinity in the Baltic Sea.
Abstract. Historical oceanographic data from the period 1964-1997 from two deep subbasins (the Gotland Deep and the Landsort Deep) in the Baltic Sea have been analyzed, by using a budget method on stagnant periods, with respect to vertical diffusion and vertical energy flux density in the deep water. It was found that the rate of deepwater mixing varied with the seasons, with higher rates in fall and winter compared to spring and summer. Further, according to the analyzed data, the downward flux density of energy available for vertical diffusion decreased with increasing depth in the Gotland Deep. In the Landsort Deep, however, the flux density increased somewhat, probably because of topographic concentration of the energy, before decreasing toward the bottom. Moreover, the vertical energy flux densities were compared with the expected flux density from the local wind. It is proposed that in the Gotland Deep, which is outside the coastal boundary layer, the observed deepwater mixing is dominated by the energy input from the wind via inertial currents and internal waves. In the Landsort Deep, however, which is within the coastal boundary layer, the expected flux density of energy from the local wind cannot explain the observed rate of work against the buoyancy forces. It is proposed that the active coastal boundary layer plays a central role in the transfer of energy to mixing processes in the deep water.
[1] A one-dimensional numerical ocean model of the southern Baltic Sea is used to investigate suitable parameterizations of unresolved turbulence and compare with available observations. The turbulence model is a k-e model that includes extra source terms P IW and P LC of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) due to unresolved, breaking internal waves and Langmuir circulations, respectively. As tides are negligible in the Baltic Sea, topographic generation of internal wave energy (IWE) is neglected. Instead, the energy for deepwater mixing in the Baltic Sea is provided by the wind. At each level the source term P IW is assumed to be related to a vertically integrated pool of IWE, E 0 , and the buoyancy frequency N at the same level, according toThis results in vertical profiles of e (the dissipation rate of TKE) and K h (the eddy diffusivity) according to e / N d and K h / N dÀ2 below the main pycnocline. Earlier observations are inconclusive as to the proper value of d, and here a range of values of d is tested in hundreds of 10-year simulations of the southern Baltic Sea. It is concluded that d = 1.0 ± 0.3 and that a mean energy flux density to the internal wave field of about (0.9 ± 0.3) Â 10 À3 W m À2 is needed to explain the observed salinity field. In addition, a simple wind-dependent formulation of the energy flux to the internal wave field is tested, which has some success in describing the short-and long-term variability of the deepwater turbulence. The model suggests that $16% of the energy supplied to the surface layer by the wind is used for deepwater mixing. Finally, it is also shown that Langmuir circulations are important to include when modeling the oceanic boundary layer. A simple parameterization of Langmuir circulations is tuned against large-eddy simulation data and verified for the Baltic Sea.INDEX TERMS: 4243 Oceanography: General: Marginal and semienclosed seas; 4544 Oceanography: Physical: Internal and inertial waves; 4572 Oceanography: Physical: Upper ocean processes; 4568 Oceanography: Physical: Turbulence, diffusion, and mixing processes; KEYWORDS: Baltic Sea, mixing, turbulence model, Langmuir circulations, internal waves, internal wave energy Citation: Axell, L. B., Wind-driven internal waves and Langmuir circulations in a numerical ocean model of the southern Baltic Sea,
The Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS) Ocean State Report (OSR) provides an annual report of the state of the global ocean and European regional seas for policy and decision-makers with the additional aim of increasing general public awareness about the status of, and changes in, the marine environment. The CMEMS OSR draws on expert analysis and provides a 3-D view (through reanalysis systems), a view from above (through remote-sensing data) and a direct view of the interior (through in situ measurements) of the global ocean and the European regional seas. The report is based on the unique CMEMS monitoring capabilities of the blue (hydrography, currents), white (sea ice) and green (e.g. Chlorophyll) marine environment. This first issue of the CMEMS OSR provides guidance on Essential Variables, large-scale changes and specific events related to the physical ocean state over the period 1993–2015. Principal findings of this first CMEMS OSR show a significant increase in global and regional sea levels, thermosteric expansion, ocean heat content, sea surface temperature and Antarctic sea ice extent and conversely a decrease in Arctic sea ice extent during the 1993–2015 period. During the year 2015 exceptionally strong large-scale changes were monitored such as, for example, a strong El Niño Southern Oscillation, a high frequency of extreme storms and sea level events in specific regions in addition to areas of high sea level and harmful algae blooms. At the same time, some areas in the Arctic Ocean experienced exceptionally low sea ice extent and temperatures below average were observed in the North Atlantic Ocean
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