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SummaryLaccases are oxidases that contain several copper atoms, and catalyse single‐electron oxidations of phenolic compounds with concomitant reduction of oxygen to water. The enzymes are particularly widespread in ligninolytic basidiomycetes, but also occur in certain prokaryotes, insects and plants. Depending on the species, laccases are involved in various biosynthetic processes contributing to carbon recycling in land ecosystems and the morphogenesis of biomatrices, wherein low‐molecular‐weight naturally occurring phenols serve as key enzyme substrates. Studies of these in vivo synthetic pathways have afforded new insights into fungal laccase applicability in green synthetic chemistry. Thus, we here review fungal laccase‐catalysed oxidations of naturally occurring phenols that are particularly relevant to the synthesis of fine organic chemicals, and we discuss how the discovered synthetic strategies mimic laccase‐involved in vivo pathways, thus enhancing the green nature of such reactions. Laccase‐catalysed in vivo processes yield several types of biopolymers, including those of cuticles, lignin, polyflavonoids, humus and the melanin pigments, using natural mono‐ or poly‐phenols as building blocks. The in vivo synthetic pathways involve either phenoxyl radical‐mediated coupling or cross‐linking reactions, and can be adapted to the design of in vitro oxidative processes involving fungal laccases in organic synthesis; the laccase substrates and the synthetic mechanisms reflect in vivo processes. Notably, such in vitro synthetic pathways can also reproduce physicochemical properties (e.g. those of chromophores, and radical‐scavenging, hydration and antimicrobial activities) found in natural biomaterials. Careful study of laccase‐associated in vivo metabolic pathways has been rewarded by the discovery of novel green applications for fungal laccases. This review comprehensively summarizes the available data on laccase‐catalysed biosynthetic pathways and associated applications in fine chemical syntheses.

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A new bacterial strain PH-06 was isolated using enrichment culture technique from river sediment contaminated with 1,4-dioxane, and identified as belonging to the genus Mycobacterium based on 16S rRNA sequencing (Accession No. EU239889). The isolated strain effectively utilized 1,4-dioxane as a sole carbon and energy source and was able to degrade 900 mg/l 1,4-dioxane in minimal salts medium within 15 days. The key degradation products identified were 1,4-dioxane-2-ol and ethylene glycol, produced by monooxygenation. Degradation of 1,4-dioxane and concomitant formation of metabolites were demonstrated by GC/MS analysis using deuterium labeled 1,4-dioxane (1,4-dioxane-d8). In addition to 1,4-dioxane, this bacterium could also transform structural analogues such as 1,3-dioxane, cyclohexane and tetrahydrofuran when pre-grown with 1,4-dioxane as the sole growth substrate. Our results suggest that PH-06 can maintain sustained growth on 1,4-dioxane without any other carbon sources.

SummaryLaccase efficiently catalyses polymerization of phenolic compounds. However, knowledge on applications of polymers synthesized in this manner remains scarce. Here, the potential of laccase‐catalysed polymerization of natural phenols to form products useful in hair dyeing was investigated. All 15 tested phenols yielded coloured products after laccase treatment and colour diversity was attained by using mixtures of two phenolic monomers. After exploring colour differentiation pattern of 120 different reactions with statistical regression analysis, three monomer combinations, namely gallic acid and syringic acid, catechin and catechol, and ferulic acid and syringic acid, giving rise to brown, black, and red materials, respectively, were further characterized because such colours are commercially important for grey hair dyeing. Selected polymers could strongly absorb visible light and their hydrodynamic sizes ranged from 100 to 400 nm. Analyses of enzyme kinetic constants, liquid chromatography and electrospray ionization‐mass spectrometry (ESI‐MS) coupled with collision‐induced dissociation MS/MS indicate that both monomers in reactions involving catechin and catechol, and ferulic acid and syringic acid, are coloured by heteropolymer synthesis, but the gallic acid/syringic acid combination is based on homopolymer mixture formation. Comparison of colour parameters from these three reactions with those of corresponding artificial homopolymer mixtures also supported the idea that laccase may catalyse either hetero‐ or homo‐polymer synthesis. We finally used selected materials to dye grey hair. Each material coloured hair appropriately and the dyeing showed excellent resistance to conventional shampooing. Our study indicates that laccase‐catalysed polymerization of natural phenols is applicable to the development of new cosmetic pigments.

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The reactivity of FeS-coated iron nanoparticles (nFe/FeS) toward trichloroethylene (TCE) reduction was examined in both synthetic and real groundwater matrices to evaluate the potential performance of nFe/FeS in field treatment. The rate of TCE reduction increased with increasing pH, which is consistent with the pH effect reported previously for iron sulfide systems, but opposite that has been observed for (nonsulfidic) Fe0 systems. The rates of TCE reduction were unaffected by ionic strength over the range of 0.1–10 mM NaCl, increased with Ca2+ or Mg2+ concentrations, and inhibited by the presence of humic acid. The inhibitory effect of humic acid on the reactivity of nFe/FeS was largely alleviated when humic acid was combined with Ca2+/Mg2+, presumably due to decreased adsorption of humic acid onto nFe/FeS surface by the formation of humic acid–Ca2+/Mg2+ complexes.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are common flame-retardant chemicals that are used in diverse commercial products such as textiles, circuit boards, and plastics. Because of the widespread production and improper disposal of materials that contain PBDEs, there has been an increasing accumulation of these compounds in the environment. The toxicity and bioavailability of PBDEs are variable for different congeners, with some congeners showing dioxin-like activities and estrogenicity. The diphenyl ether-utilizing bacterium Sphingomonas sp. PH-07 was enriched from activated sludge of a wastewater treatment plant. In liquid cultures, this strain mineralized 1 g of diphenyl ether per liter completely within 6 days. The metabolites detected and identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (MS) and electrospray ionization/MS analysis corresponded with a feasible degradative pathway. However, the strain PH-07 even catabolized several brominated congeners such as mono-, di-, and tribrominated diphenyl ethers thereby producing the corresponding metabolites.