Per capita municipal solid waste (MSW) generation, a core indicator of environmental pressure, is a useful measure for evaluating the intensity of waste generation over time and comparing the intensities among cities or countries. We provide an overview of global data on MSW generation per capita at the national and local levels. Although the legal definition of MSW varies from country to country, we conceptualize MSW simply as the waste managed by or for municipalities as a public service. We note the current challenges in estimating MSW generation per capita in developing countries, including a lack of equipment (e.g., weighbridges), lower rates of MSW collection efficiency, and rural-urban migration, all of which may have negative effects on data reliability. Incomplete data compilation systems at the national level also result in lower reliability and reduce the comparability of national data. We suggest technical solutions for estimating MSW generation per capita at the local and national levels to improve reliability and comparability of data.

Proper management of food waste, a major component of municipal solid waste (MSW), is needed, especially in developing Asian countries where most MSW is disposed of in landfill sites without any pretreatment. Source separation can contribute to solving problems derived from the disposal of food waste. An organic waste source separation and collection programme has been operated in model areas in Hanoi, Vietnam, since 2007. This study proposed three key parameters (participation rate, proper separation rate and proper discharge rate) for behaviour related to source separation of household organic waste, and monitored the progress of the programme based on the physical composition of household waste sampled from 558 households in model programme areas of Hanoi. The results showed that 13.8% of 558 households separated organic waste, and 33.0% discharged mixed (unseparated) waste improperly. About 41.5% (by weight) of the waste collected as organic waste was contaminated by inorganic waste, and one-third of the waste disposed of as organic waste by separators was inorganic waste. We proposed six hypothetical future household behaviour scenarios to help local officials identify a final or midterm goal for the programme. We also suggested that the city government take further actions to increase the number of people participating in separating organic waste, improve the accuracy of separation and prevent non-separators from discharging mixed waste improperly.

Despite its initial success in COVID-19 pandemic control, Vietnam faces a growing risk of outbreaks as new infection waves driven by the highly contagious Delta variant surge in the region. In the context of preparedness through waste management, this study estimated the rate and quantity of generation and the composition of COVID-19 waste in Vietnam from the supply of resources and equipment. Over a year under COVID, 1486 t of COVID-19 waste was produced from the treatment of isolated COVID-19 patients (4.64 kg bed−1 day−1), quarantine in medical facilities (3.86 kg bed−1 day−1), centralised quarantine (46.43 g bed−1 day−1), testing (50 g test−1) and vaccination (10.46 g shot−1). Plastic dominated the waste at 76.7%, followed by paper. The additional management of waste from households with persons under quarantine is likely to reduce infection caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) – contaminated waste. Thorough assessment is recommended for the establishment of regional collaboration to secure COVID-19 waste treatment capacity. These findings will support COVID-19 waste planning in Vietnam in association with pandemic scenarios and could be used as a reference by other developing countries for pandemic control.

Even in developing countries, the amount of containers and packaging waste are increasing in line with population concentration and lifestyle changes in urban areas. This can cause serious problems for the disposal of municipal solid waste. Through a physical composition analysis of household waste in Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam, this study aimed to identify the contribution made by junk buyers to recycling. Interviews on the handling of recyclable waste by households were conducted. About 232 kg of recyclable waste was sampled from a total of 115 households, and about 230 kg of municipal solid waste was sampled from a total of 101 households and sorted into 69 categories for measurement by volume and weight. The interview survey revealed that a high proportion of households tended to routinely store recyclable waste for sale or donation to junk buyers. Junk buyers accounted for 8.8% of recycling by weight or 26.0% by volume according to the results of the physical composition analysis. In addition, the results suggested that containers and packaging waste accounted for the largest proportion of household waste by volume. Junk buyers recycled 25.5% by weight of containers and packaging waste. In the formulation of new plans for municipal solid waste management to improve the current situation and handle future challenges, the role of the informal sector should be monitored carefully and reliable data on recyclable waste should be collected continuously.

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According to Japanese government policy, the input of natural resources should be minimized and input resources should be utilized to the greatest extent possible so that, eventually, minimum waste is generated. The cement industry of Japan has worked hard to maximize waste utilization. Focusing on the cumulative amounts of the elements needed for clinker and gross calorific values, this study estimated the extent to which waste utilization has directly or indirectly reduced natural resource consumption and greenhouse gas emissions associated with cement production at 32 factories in Japan and clarified the effect of waste utilization in the cement industry on the resource productivity of Japan based on information for fiscal year 2008. Had no wastes been utilized, the cement industry consumption of limestone would have been 18% higher; of clay, 2,899% higher; and of energy, 22% higher. The utilization of wastes in the mixing and burning process of cement production directly reduced greenhouse gas emissions (12% emitted gas reduction) by a larger amount than the indirect reduction achieved by their utilization during the admixing process (10% reduction). Waste utilization for cement production contributed to an increase in resource productivity of about 8,000 Japanese Yen/ton.

The accelerated generation of COVID-19 waste under the Delta-fuelled outbreak placed a sudden burden on waste disposal in Vietnam. To secure the treatment of COVID-19 waste amid the pandemic uncertainty, treatment capacity was assessed by determining treatment occupancy rate—the ratio of estimated demand to calculated capacity—both nationally and in Ho Chi Minh City. At the general occupancy rate for COVID-19 waste treatment of 7.4%, the country was capable of handling COVID-19 waste, with a capacity to treat 62 191 t month −1 . However, Ho Chi Minh City became overwhelmed, indicated by a treatment occupancy rate of up to 780% during the Delta outbreak, as the unanticipated growth of demand for COVID-19 waste treatment caused waste to back up. The assessment results, in addition to current legislation, support collaboration in waste treatment as a solution to using existing resources to address the acute shortage of treatment capacity, so as to secure COVID-19 waste treatment. The findings could be used by other developing countries to tackle the waste problem in the pandemic era. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10163-022-01529-z.