This study investigated the position of staminodes around the style of cocoa flowers and the stability of cocoa flowers relative to pollination and seasonality. Cocoa flowers were categorized into converging, ≤1.20 mm; parallel, 1.21–2.40 mm, and splay ≥2.41 mm, depending on the distance between the staminode and style. Some flowers were hand pollinated while others were not and were excluded from insect visitors. Proportions of flowers of converging (56.0%), parallel (37.5%), and splay (6.5%) remained similar along the vertical plane of cocoa trees. Although pollination rates of flowers with splay staminodes were the lowest, the overall pollination success of cocoa trees was not significantly affected because of the small proportion of splay flowers.The stability of the cocoa flowers depended on both the season and pollination. During the dry season, unpollinated flowers of cocoa trees showed a flower-stability ratio of 72% on the second day, while the flower-stability ratio was 94% in the wet season. Pollinated (senescent) flowers had a stability ratio of 95% after 5 days during the wet season, but all pollinated flowers dropped after 5 days in the dry season, indicating that seasonal factors, such as water stress, can have dramatic effects on cocoa yields.
Invasive alien species (IAS) continue to shape the global landscape through their effects on biological diversity and agricultural productivity. The effects are particularly pronounced in Sub-Saharan Africa, which has seen the arrival of many IAS in recent years. This has been attributed to porous borders, weak cross border biosecurity, and inadequate capacity to limit or stop invasions. Prediction and early detection of IAS, as well as mechanisms of containment and eradication, are needed in the fight against this global threat. Horizon scanning is an approach that enables gathering of information on risk and impact that can support IAS management. A study was conducted in Ghana to establish two ranked lists of potential invasive alien plant pest species that could be harmful to agriculture, forestry, and the environment, and to rank them according to their potential threat. The ultimate objective was to enable prioritization of actions including pest risk analysis, prevention, surveillance and contingency plans. Prioritisation was carried out using an adapted version of horizon scanning and consensus methods developed for ranking IAS worldwide. Following a horizon scan of invasive alien species not yet officially present in Ghana, a total of 110 arthropod and 64 pathogenic species were assessed through a simplified pest risk assessment. Sixteen species, of which 14 were arthropods and two pathogens, had not been recorded on the African continent at the time of assessment. The species recorded in Africa included 19 arthropod and 46 pathogenic species which were already recorded in the neighbouring countries of Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, and Togo. The majority of arthropod species were likely to arrive as contaminants on commodities, followed by a sizable number which were likely to arrive as stowaways, while some species were capable of long distance dispersal unaided. The main actions suggested for species that scored highly included full pest risk analyses and, for species recorded in neighbouring countries, surveys to determine their presence in Ghana were recommended.
Vegetable plays a key role in food and nutrition security in Ghana as the country’s food system shifts from food quantity to diet quality and health benefits. This chapter looks at the role vegetables play in the diets of humans in ensuring food and nutrition security. Traditional locally available underutilized vegetable crops as well as exotic vegetable crops could be utilized to improve nutrition and health. One of the strategies for promoting vegetable production is the development and adoption of innovative and modern technologies to address major challenges impeding the advancement of vegetable production in Ghana. These challenges include lack of improved varieties, nonfunctional seed systems, poor infrastructure for storage and processing, uncontrolled use of agrochemicals, etc. Genetic manipulation, soil and water management as well as integrated pest and disease management have been harnessed with significant achievement to boost vegetable production. Other emerging, including nursery management, controlled environment (such as a greenhouse), grafting, post-harvest handling, digital marketing, information and extension services can also be promoted. Greenhouse production increases vegetable crop quality and productivity, which results in higher economic returns. Finally, the chapter highlights the enormous prospects and contributions of vegetable production towards reducing rural poverty and unemployment.
Managing crop production as a business among smallholder farmers is a challenge. This farmers' survey therefore assessed farm activities and their economic implications to smallholder farmers, with special reference on cocoa farmers, using structured questionnaire. Farmers and their household were found to be greatly involved in providing labour for all key farm activities such as weed management, pesticide application and harvesting. This labour was not priced by most farmers and therefore estimated expenditure on managing the farms were lower than actual cost incurred. Cocoa formed 75% of total landholdings with 3-4 acres and < 3acres being the modal farm size for cocoa and supplementary crops (vegetables, plantain, oil palm, cassava and maize) respectively. Although applying fertilizer to cocoa increased yield by over 144%, majority of the farmers did not consistently apply it due to purported high price. Vegetables were the only crop that fertilizer was consistently applied to, and even that it was below recommended rates. Yearly variable margin from cocoa treated with fertilizer was GHS 837 (US$ 190)/acre compared to GHS 548 (US$ 125)/acre of cocoa without fertilizer, thereby justifying the use of fertilizer. The annual variable margin from supplementary crops ranged GHS 162-274 (US$37-62)/acre/year, depending on the type of crop. Based on the statistical mode of 4-6 persons per household, 3-4 acres of cocoa and 0.5-2.5 acres of supplementary crops, the yearly returns of GHS 2,511-3,348 (US$ 570-761) from cocoa (with fertilizer) and GHS 81-685 (US$ 18.41-155.68) from supplementary crops was inadequate. Promoting other low capital input ventures like snail rearing, mushroom production and bee keeping will be of immense support to the farmer's household.
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