Abstract. The European Academy of Wind Energy (eawe), representing universities and institutes with a significant wind energy programme in 14 countries, has discussed the long-term research challenges in wind energy. In contrast to research agendas addressing short-to medium-term research activities, this eawe document takes a longer-term perspective, addressing the scientific knowledge base that is required to develop wind energy beyond the applications of today and tomorrow. In other words, this long-term research agenda is driven by problems and curiosity, addressing basic research and fundamental knowledge in 11 research areas, ranging from physics and design to environmental and societal aspects. Because of the very nature of this initiative, this document does not intend to be permanent or complete. It shows the vision of the experts of the eawe, but other views may be possible. We sincerely hope that it will spur an even more intensive discussion worldwide within the wind energy community.

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The International Energy Agency (IEA), an autonomous agency, was established in November 1974. Its primary mandate was -and is -two-fold: to promote energy security amongst its member countries through collective response to physical disruptions in oil supply, and provide authoritative research and analysis on ways to ensure reliable, affordable and clean energy for its 29 member countries and beyond. The IEA carries out a comprehensive programme of energy co-operation among its member countries, each of which is obliged to hold oil stocks equivalent to 90 days of its net imports. The Agency's aims include the following objectives: n Secure member countries' access to reliable and ample supplies of all forms of energy; in particular, through maintaining effective emergency response capabilities in case of oil supply disruptions. n Promote sustainable energy policies that spur economic growth and environmental protection in a global context -particularly in terms of reducing greenhouse-gas emissions that contribute to climate change. n Improve transparency of international markets through collection and analysis of energy data.n Support global collaboration on energy technology to secure future energy supplies and mitigate their environmental impact, including through improved energy efficiency and development and deployment of low-carbon technologies. n Find solutions to global energy challenges through engagement and dialogue with non-member countries, industry, international organisations and other stakeholders. The European Commission also participates in the work of the IEA. IEA member countries:Please note that this publication is subject to specific restrictions that limit its use and distribution. Acknowledgements 7Contact 9Executive Summary 10Nordic energy-related carbon dioxide emissions 26Chapter 1 Nordic choices in a global world 28Radical change is needed, but history gives cause for optimism 31Three strategic issues facing Nordic countries 35Power generation and district heating are almost there 42Spotlight 1: The Nordic bioenergy market 52Decarbonising transport poses significant challenges 57Industry: Innovation will be the deal breaker 72Spotlight 2: Iceland´s fishing sector 83Buildings: Accelerating deep energy renovation is critical 88Decarbonising the Nordic region will not cost the world 101Chapter 2 Urban energy 104Introduction 107Overview of Nordic urban energy systems 108Drivers of change in the urban context 114 Urban scenarios 119Nordic capitals leading the low-carbon transition by example 129Recommendations for action in urban areas 147 6Nordic Energy Technology Perspectives 2016 Electricity system integration 150Introduction 153Market integration of VRE 173 Electricity trade 180Flexibility in the system and VRE integration 189The role of nuclear in the Nordic energy system 210 Recommendations and near-term actions 213 Annexes 216Annex A (Chapter 1) 217 Annex B (Chapter 2) 230Annex C (Chapter 3) 235References 245 List of Figures 254List of Boxes 260 List of Tables 261Also from the IE...

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When distributed electricity supply surpasses a particular level, it can no longer be ignored in planning and operation of the electricity networks. Therefore, improvements of the regulatory framework of the electricity networks are required along with the growth of the electricity supply from distributed generation.This paper reviews the current regulation of the grids with respect to distributed generation in EU-15 Member States and compares the different systems. Several barriers are identified.