Alcoholism is a complex disease with both genetic and environmental risk factors. To identify genes that affect the risk for alcoholism, we systematically ascertained and carefully assessed individuals in families with multiple alcoholics. Linkage and association analyses suggested that a region of chromosome 4p contained genes affecting a quantitative endophenotype, brain oscillations in the beta frequency range (13-28 Hz), and the risk for alcoholism. To identify the individual genes that affect these phenotypes, we performed linkage disequilibrium analyses of 69 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) within a cluster of four GABA(A) receptor genes, GABRG1, GABRA2, GABRA4, and GABRB1, at the center of the linked region. GABA(A) receptors mediate important effects of alcohol and also modulate beta frequencies. Thirty-one SNPs in GABRA2, but only 1 of the 20 SNPs in the flanking genes, showed significant association with alcoholism. Twenty-five of the GABRA2 SNPs, but only one of the SNPs in the flanking genes, were associated with the brain oscillations in the beta frequency. The region of strongest association with alcohol dependence extended from intron 3 past the 3' end of GABRA2; all 43 of the consecutive three-SNP haplotypes in this region of GABRA2 were highly significant. A three-SNP haplotype was associated with alcoholism, with P=.000000022. No coding differences were found between the high-risk and low-risk haplotypes, suggesting that the effect is mediated through gene regulation. The very strong association of GABRA2 with both alcohol dependence and the beta frequency of the electroencephalogram, combined with biological evidence for a role of this gene in both phenotypes, suggest that GABRA2 might influence susceptibility to alcohol dependence by modulating the level of neural excitation.

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Several correlated phenotypes, alcohol dependence, major depressive syndrome, and an endophenotype of electrophysiological measurements, event-related oscillations (EROs), have demonstrated linkage on the long arm of chromosome 7. Recently, we reported both linkage and association between polymorphisms in the gene encoding the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M2 (CHRM2) and EROs. In this study, we evaluated whether genetic variation in the CHRM2 gene is also a risk factor for the correlated clinical characteristics of alcoholism and depression. The CHRM2 gene contains a single coding exon and a large 5' untranslated region encoded by multiple exons that can be alternatively spliced. Families were recruited through an alcohol dependent proband, and multiplex pedigrees were selected for genetic analyses. We examined 11 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) spanning the CHRM2 gene in these families. Using the UNPHASED pedigree disequilibrium test (PDTPHASE), three SNPs (one in intron 4 and two in intron 5) showed highly significant association with alcoholism (P=0.004-0.007). Two SNPs (both in intron 4) were significantly associated with major depressive syndrome (P=0.004 and 0.017). Haplotype analyses revealed that the most common haplotype (>40% frequency), T-T-T (rs1824024-rs2061174-rs324650), was under-transmitted to affected individuals with alcohol dependence and major depressive syndrome. Different complementary haplotypes were over-transmitted in alcohol dependent and depressed individuals. These findings provide strong evidence that variants within or close to the CHRM2 locus influence risk for two common psychiatric disorders.

Response inhibition is considered a core dimension in alcoholism and its co-existing disorders. The major objective of this study is to compare the magnitude and spatial distribution of ERP components during response activation and inhibition in alcoholics (N = 30) and normal controls (N = 30) using a visual Go/No-Go task. The results indicate that alcoholics manifest a decreased P3(00) amplitude during Go as well as No-Go conditions. The difference between Go and No-Go processing was more evident in controls than in alcoholics. The topography of current source density in alcoholics during the P3 response was found to be very different from that of normals, suggesting that alcoholics perhaps activated inappropriate brain circuitry during cognitive processing. The significantly reduced No-Go P3 along with the relatively less anteriorized CSD topography during No-Go condition suggests poor inhibitory control in alcoholics. It is proposed that the No-Go P3, the electrophysiological signature of response inhibition, can be considered as an endophenotypic marker in alcoholism.

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Event-related oscillations play a key role in understanding the brain dynamics and human information processing. In the present study, the Go/No-Go paradigm has been used to examine whether alcoholics have poor inhibitory control as compared to control subjects in terms of different oscillatory brain responses. The matching pursuit algorithm was used to decompose the event-related electroencephalogram into oscillations of different frequencies. It was found that alcoholics (n=58) showed significant reduction in delta (1.0-3.0 Hz) and theta (3.5-7.0 Hz) power during No-Go trials as compared to controls (n=29). This reduction was prominent at the frontal region. The decreased delta and theta power associated with No-Go processing perhaps suggests a deficient inhibitory control and information-processing mechanism. A neuro-cognitive model has been provided to explain the findings. It is suggested that the oscillatory correlates during cognitive processing can be an endophenotypic marker in alcoholism.

Background-Visual P300 is consistently lower in alcohol dependent individuals, their offspring and subjects at risk. Delta and theta event related oscillations (ERO) are the major contributors to the P300 signal. The total and evoked power in delta and theta bands in the 300 to 700 millisecond post-stimulus window (corresponding to the zone of P3 maxima) was compared between adolescent offspring of alcoholics (high-risk) and age-matched normal controls (low-risk), to assess the utility of the risk markers.Methods-EEG was recorded during the performance of visual oddball task. The S-Transform algorithm decomposed the EEG signals into different frequency bands and the group differences in total and evoked power in the oscillatory responses during the P300 time window (300 to 700 ms) were analyzed using a multivariate design. Similar analysis was performed on P300 peak amplitudes for the target.Results-The high-risk group showed significantly lower parietal post-stimulus evoked and total power in the delta band for targets. A decrease in total power was seen centrally and parietally in theta band. The P300 peak amplitude in the parietal electrodes was also significantly lower in the high-risk group.Conclusions-The decreased total theta power and total and evoked delta power for visual targets in high risk individuals may serve as an endophenotypic marker in the development of alcoholism and other disinhibitory disorders. The differences seen between the offspring of alcoholics and controls may have a cholinergic basis. The ERO measures appear to be more robust than the P300 amplitude in differentiating the groups.