The translator's risk management while translating can involve several general dispositions, of which risk taking, risk avoidance, and risk transfer have been modeled previously (Pym 2015). In this paper we propose a fourth type of disposition, risk mitigation, which was identified by Matsushita (2016) through empirical research based on Pym's model. Risk mitigation is a disposition where the translator incurs one kind of risk in order to reduce another. Analyzing authentic examples in multiple languages, we ask whether mitigation is fundamentally different from the other three types, whether it involves a specific restriction on how much effort should rationally be invested by the translator, and whether a general logic of trade-offs is applicable. We further propose that mitigation correlates with factors both on the production side of the translator's discourse, where it enhances translatorial visibility, and on the reception side, where it can respond to imprecise identification of the target public.
Through methods developed by the Association of Mathematical Instruction (AMI) in Japan, children can be helped toacquire mathematical knowledge. Problem solving that enhances acquisition of mathematical knowledge is divided intowo types, semantic problem solving (SPS) and pragmaticoblem solving (PPS). The focus in SPS is a systematic organization of the target knowledge and the schematic representations through which children acquire it. PPS emphasizes thefunctional composition of the situation and the use of constraints in accordance with a child’s ability. SPS and PPS cover not only the beginning but the whole process of learning. support of this assertion, the process of becoming an adaptiveproblem solver beyond the initial learning situation is illustrated and examined from the viewpoint of interiorization and generalization. SPS and PPS are also helpful for restructuring learning in mathematics through clarifying referents and demonstrating the significance of a new concept. Finally, the authenticity of learning in relation to effective PPS-based teaching is discussed.
When a newsmaker (i.e., a newsworthy subject) is speaking or being spoken about in a foreign language, quoting requires translation. In such “translingual quoting” (Haapanen, 2017), it is not only the content of the speech but also its translatability that determines newsworthiness. While news media in some countries prefer indirect quotation, Japanese media favor direct quotes (Matsushita, 2019). This practice yields relatively clear source text (ST)-target text (TT) relationships in translingual quoting, especially when a political speech is directly quoted by newspapers, offering abundant data for news translation research (Matsushita, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2019). However, this research approach has been challenged by the rise of a public figure known for making headlines with his extemporaneous remarks: US President Donald J. Trump. Translingual quoting of Trump in the non-English media has proven at times a “nearly impossible quest” (Lichfield, 2016) because of the unique features of his utterances, such as unorthodox word choices, run-on sentences and disjointed syntax (Viennot, 2016). This difficulty is heightened for Japanese newspapers, which uphold a longstanding journalistic standard of reporting speech as faithfully as possible, even in the case of translingual quoting (Matsushita, 2019). Against this backdrop, this article examines the often-conflicting relationship between “quotability” and “translatability” by analyzing how Japanese newspaper articles have quoted Donald Trump and his predecessor, Barack Obama, through comparison of original speeches and news texts produced by Japanese newspapers. The comparison shows that institutional conventions of Japanese newspaper companies regarding direct quotes are frequently neglected by the journalists trans-quoting Trump (e.g., changed to indirect quotes or reproduced less faithfully), leading to marked differences in the textual portrayals of the newsmakers in terms of eloquence and assertiveness.
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