These results suggest that exercise intensity, mode, duration and the nature of meal/fluid ingested all influence GE during and after acute exercise. The relationship of GE parameters with appetite regulation after exercise remains largely unexplored. Further integrative studies combining GE and alterations in gut hormones, as well as in populations such as overweight and obese individuals are needed.

Does exercise promote weight loss? One of the key problems with studies assessing the efficacy of exercise as a method of weight management and obesity is that mean data are presented, and the individual variability in response is overlooked. Recent data have highlighted the need to demonstrate and characterise the individual variability in response to exercise. Do people who exercise compensate for the increase in energy expenditure via compensatory increases in hunger and food intake? We address the physiological, psychological and behavioural factors potentially involved in the relationship between exercise and appetite, and identify the research questions which remain unanswered.A negative consequence of the phenomena of individual variability and compensatory responses has been the focus on those who lose little weight in response to exercise; this has been used unreasonably as evidence to suggest that exercise is a futile method of weight control and managing obesity.Most of the evidence suggests that exercise is useful for improving body composition and health. For example, when exercise-induced mean weight loss is <1.0kg, significant improvements in aerobic capacity (+6.3 ml . kg -1. min -1), systolic (-6.00 mmHg) and diastolic (-3.9 mmHg) blood pressure, waist circumference (-3.7cm) and positive mood still occur. However, people will vary in their responses to exercise; understanding and characterising this variability will help tailor weight loss strategies to suit individuals. I) IntroductionExercise is frequently used as a method of weight control through an increase in energy expenditure with the aim of creating a sustained energy deficit. Of course, compliance to the exercise itself is an important issue, however, of more interest is the issue of compensatory responses which undermine the ability of exercise to promote the theoretical weight loss. [1] There have been a multitude of studies examining the acute effects of exercise on compensatory responses in energy intake. The acute effects of exercise appear to be consistent and relatively well understood. The majority of research demonstrates that acute exercise does not increase hunger, desire to eat or energy intake. [2][3][4][5][6] Even when there is a marked increment of 4.6 MJ/d in acute exercise-induced energy expenditure (EE), and energy intake (EI) is monitored for 2 days, there is no automatic increase in EI. [7] Although the acute effects of exercise on EI are generally consistent, there are a few rare examples of a coupling between EE and EI. [8][9] More recently partial compensation to an exercise-induced energy deficit has been reported. [10][11][12] Exercise has also been demonstrated to improve the sensitivity of appetite control, and that regular exercisers are better at detecting the difference in energy content between low-and high-energy preloads compared with their sedentary counterparts. [13][14] Overall, the evidence suggests that no or only slight partial compensation occurs in response to an acute exercise-induced ...

Minerals and trace elements (MTEs) are micronutrients involved in hundreds of biological processes. Deficiency in MTEs can negatively affect athletic performance. Approximately 50% of athletes have reported consuming some form of micronutrient supplement; however, there is limited data confirming their efficacy for improving performance. The aim of this study was to systematically review the role of MTEs in exercise and athletic performance. Six electronic databases and grey literature sources (MEDLINE; EMBASE; CINAHL and SportDISCUS; Web of Science and clinicaltrials.gov) were searched, in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Results: 17,433 articles were identified and 130 experiments from 128 studies were included. Retrieved articles included Iron (n = 29), Calcium (n = 11), Magnesium, (n = 22), Phosphate (n = 17), Zinc (n = 9), Sodium (n = 15), Boron (n = 4), Selenium (n = 5), Chromium (n = 12) and multi-mineral articles (n = 5). No relevant articles were identified for Copper, Manganese, Iodine, Nickel, Fluoride or Cobalt. Only Iron and Magnesium included articles of sufficient quality to be assigned as ‘strong’. Currently, there is little evidence to support the use of MTE supplementation to improve physiological markers of athletic performance, with the possible exception of Iron (in particular, biological situations) and Magnesium as these currently have the strongest quality evidence. Regardless, some MTEs may possess the potential to improve athletic performance, but more high quality research is required before support for these MTEs can be given. PROSPERO preregistered (CRD42018090502).

Taste is influenced by several factors. However, whether habitual exercise level is associated with differences in taste perception has received little investigation. The aim of this study was to determine if habitual exercise is associated with differences in taste perception in men. Active (n = 16) and inactive (n = 14) males, between ages 18–55, underwent two days of sensory testing, using prototypical taste stimuli of high and low concentrations for sweet, salt, bitter, sour, umami, and carbohydrate (maltodextrin). Mean perceived intensity and hedonic ratings were recorded. Eating behaviour was assessed by the three factor eating questionnaire and food intake by EPIC food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). There were moderate to large differences between the two groups in perceived intensity for sweet taste at the high concentration and umami taste at both high and low concentrations, with active males recording a higher perceived intensity (p < 0.05 for all). The active group also recorded a greater dislike for umami low and carbohydrate low concentration (p < 0.01). Salt, bitter and sour perception did not significantly differ between the two groups. FFQ analysis showed no difference in % energy from macronutrients between the groups. Eating behaviour traits correlated with sweet taste intensity and umami taste liking, independent of activity status. Results indicated that sweet and umami taste perception differ in active compared to inactive males. Habitual exercise level should be considered in taste perception research and in product development. Whether differences in taste perception could be one factor influencing food intake and thus energy balance with habitual exercise warrants further investigation.

Summary The gastrointestinal tract plays an important role in the improved appetite control and weight loss in response to bariatric surgery. Other strategies which similarly alter gastrointestinal responses to food intake could contribute to successful weight management. The aim of this review is to discuss the effects of surgical, pharmacological and behavioural weight loss interventions on gastrointestinal targets of appetite control, including gastric emptying. Gastrointestinal peptides are also discussed because of their integrative relationship in appetite control. This review shows that different strategies exert diverse effects and there is no consensus on the optimal strategy for manipulating gastric emptying to improve appetite control. Emerging evidence from surgical procedures (e.g. sleeve gastrectomy and Roux‐en‐Y gastric bypass) suggests a faster emptying rate and earlier delivery of nutrients to the distal small intestine may improve appetite control. Energy restriction slows gastric emptying, while the effect of exercise‐induced weight loss on gastric emptying remains to be established. The limited evidence suggests that chronic exercise is associated with faster gastric emptying, which we hypothesize will impact on appetite control and energy balance. Understanding how behavioural weight loss interventions (e.g. diet and exercise) alter gastrointestinal targets of appetite control may be important to improve their success in weight management.

Milk protein-derived peptides have been reported to have potential benefits for reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes. However, what the active components are and whether intact peptides exert this bioactivity has received little investigation in human subjects. Furthermore, potentially useful bioactive peptides can be limited by low bioavailability. Various peptides have been identified in the gastrointestinal tract and bloodstream after milk-protein ingestion, providing valuable insights into their potential bioavailability. However, these studies are currently limited and the structure and sequence of milk peptides exerting bioactivity for glycaemic management has received little investigation in human subjects. The present article reviews the bioavailability of milk protein-derived peptides in human studies to date, and examines the evidence on milk proteins and glycaemic management, including potential mechanisms of action. Areas in need of advancement are identified. Only by establishing the bioavailability of milk protein-derived peptides, the active components and the mechanistic pathways involved can the benefits of milk proteins for the prevention or management of type 2 diabetes be fully realised in future.

A cardiovascular comorbidity in obese adolescents is increased aortic pulse wave velocity (aPWV), carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) and left ventricular mass (LVM). We investigated in obese adolescents 1) the risk factors associated with aPWV, cIMT and LVM, and 2) the effects of aerobic (AE) versus resistance (RE) exercise alone (without calorie restriction) on aPWV, cIMT, LVM index (LVMI) and cardiometabolic risk factors. Eighty-one obese adolescents (12-18 yrs, BMI ≥95th percentile) were randomized to 3 months of AE (n = 30), RE (n = 27) or a control group (n = 24). Outcome measures included aPWV, cIMT, LVMI, body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), blood pressure (BP) and lipids. At baseline, the strongest correlates of aPWV were body weight (r = .31) and diastolic BP (r = .28); of cIMT were body weight (r=0.26) and CRF (r=-0.25); and of LVMI was CRF (r=0.32) after adjusting for sex and race (p < .05 for all). Despite significant reductions in total fat and improvements in CRF in the AE and RE groups, aPWV, cIMT, LVMI, BP, lipids and body weight did not change as compared with controls (p > .05 for all). Interventions of longer duration or together with weight loss may be required to improve these early biomarkers of CVD in obese adolescents.

Frailty is a syndrome of growing importance given the global ageing population. While frailty is a multifactorial process, poor nutritional status is considered a key contributor to its pathophysiology. As nutrition is a modifiable risk factor for frailty, strategies to prevent and treat frailty should consider dietary change. Observational evidence linking nutrition with frailty appears most robust for dietary quality: for example, dietary patterns such as the Mediterranean diet appear to be protective. In addition, research on specific foods, such as a higher consumption of fruit and vegetables and lower consumption of ultra-processed foods are consistent, with healthier profiles linked to lower frailty risk. Few dietary intervention studies have been conducted to date, although a growing number of trials that combine supplementation with exercise training suggest a multi-domain approach may be more effective. This review is based on an interdisciplinary workshop, held in November 2020, and synthesises current understanding of dietary influences on frailty, focusing on opportunities for prevention and treatment. Longer term prospective studies and well-designed trials are needed to determine the causal effects of nutrition on frailty risk and progression and how dietary change can be used to prevent and/or treat frailty in the future.