Theoretically, performing pro-environmental behaviors can lead to positive spillover (increased future pro-environmental behaviors or strengthened environmental attitudes) by increasing someone's acceptance of an environmental self-identity, or negative spillover by alleviating guilt motivations which fuel some environmental actions. Labeling someone an "environmentalist" in connection to performance of pro-environmental behaviors could strengthen the positive spillover route through emphasizing environmental self-identity rather than guilt reduction. In Study 1, participants perceiving that they performed many pro-environmental behaviors reported greater environmental self-identity strengthening their environmental attitudes, but simultaneously reported a reduction in guilt weakening their environmental attitudes. Since both positive spillover and negative spillover routes were active, there was not a significant total spillover effect from pro-environmental behavior to environmental attitudes. In Study 2, however, labeling those who perceived they performed many pro-environmental behaviors as "environmentalists" led to stronger environmental self-identity with no simultaneous reduction of guilt, increasing the total positive spillover.
William James made many contributions to psychology, but probably the most famous and controversial is his theory about the sequence of emotional feelings on the one hand, and behaviors and bodily changes on the other. James described his theory clearly:Common sense says, we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep; we meet a bear, are frightened and run; we are insulted by a rival, are angry and strike. The hypothesis here to be defended says that this order of sequence is incorrect . . . and the more rational statement is that we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble.
AbstractWilliam James's theory of emotion has been controversial since its inception, and a basic analysis of Cannon's critique is provided. Research on the impact of facial expressions, expressive behaviors, and visceral responses on emotional feelings are each reviewed. A good deal of evidence supports James's theory that these types of bodily feedback, along with perceptions of situational cues, are each important parts of emotional feelings. Extensions to James's theory are also reviewed, including evidence of individual differences in the effect of bodily responses on emotional experience.
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