On the basis of existing theory and research regarding ethnic identity and immigration and our own empirical work in four immigrant-receiving countries, we suggest an interactional model for understanding psychological outcomes for immigration. Specifically, the interrelationship of ethnic and national identity and their role in the psychological well-being of immigrants can best be understood as an interaction between the attitudes and characteristics of immigrants and the responses of the receiving society. This interaction is moderated by the particular circumstances of the immigrant group. The strengths of ethnic and national identity vary depending on the support for ethnic maintenance and the pressure for assimilation. Most studies show that the combination of a strong ethnic identity and a strong national identity promotes the best adaptation.This article reviews current theory and research regarding ethnic identity and immigration and the implications of ethnic identity for the adaptation of immigrants. The article focuses on the broad questions of how ethnic identity and

This study was a longitudinal investigation of the psychological and attitudinal consequences of perceived ethnic discrimination and ethnic and national identification among immigrants in an 8-year follow-up study with panel data. The participants were 293 immigrants in Finland coming from the former Soviet Union. The results supported the Rejection-Disidentification Model (RDIM) proposed in this study; perceived discrimination resulted in national disidentification, which, in turn, increased hostile attitudes towards the national out-group. Contrary to prevalent assumptions in the literature, long-term psychological well-being was not determined by the absolute level of discrimination experienced in the past. However, it was influenced by an increase in those experiences over time, and evidence was also obtained for the reciprocal relationship between perceived discrimination and well-being. The results of the study were discussed in terms of the further development of the theoretical models explaining the role of identification in relationships between perceived discrimination, attitudes towards the national out-group and well-being among multiple-identified minority members.Cette étude est une recherche longitudinale sur les conséquences psychologiques et attitudinales de la discrimination ethnique perçue et de l'identification ethnique et nationale d'immigrants. Ayant contribué sur un suivi de huit ans aux données du panel, 293 immigrés vers la Finlande en provenance de l'ex Union soviétique ont participé à cette étude. Les résultats confirment le modèle du rejet-désidentification proposé dans cette étude; la discrimination perçue résulte d'une désidentification nationale, qui, à son tour, accroît les attitudes hostiles envers l'exo groupe national. Contrairement aux hypothèses répandues dans la littérature, le bien-être psychologique à long terme n'est pas déterminé par un niveau absolu de discrimination vécue dans le passé.

The authors addressed the specific role of and contradictory results previously obtained regarding ethnic versus host support networks in influencing directly and/or buffering the impact of perceived discrimination on the well-being of immigrants. A nationwide adult probability sample ( N= 2,360) included Finnish repatriates and Russian and Estonian immigrants in Finland from Russia, Estonia, and other countries of the former Soviet Union. Perceived discrimination had a significant impact on psychological well-being. The results demonstrated the importance of distinguishing between available and activated social support. In the total sample, strong evidence was obtained for the direct and the buffering effect of host support networks on well-being. In addition, social support provided by ethnic networks abroad was generally beneficial for the psychological well-being of the immigrants. Under some conditions, ethnic support networks were also beneficial for psychological well-being.

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A ®eld experiment studied the eect of extended contact through peer modelling for tolerance promotion among 1480 Finnish students (ages 13±15) in three pairs of middle schools that were matched on the proportion of foreign students (ranging from 3 per cent to 19 per cent) and randomised to control or experimental condition. In the experimental schools, printed stories of ingroup members engaged in close friendship with members of outgroups were presented in two sessions as examples of successful intergroup contact. In order to avoid subtyping, i.e. to ensure both inclusion of the ingroup member in the self and generalisation from the outgroup friend to the whole outgroup, the typicality of both the ingroup exemplar and the outgroup friend was enhanced. Intergroup attitudes were measured before and after the experimental intervention. A scale score measuring intergroup tolerance showed stability or favourable changes in experimental schools, while attitudes worsened or stayed the same in the control schools. The experimental eect was signi®cant in four statistical tests ( p 5 0.001 to p 5 0.05). The results show that tolerance can be improved or maintained by extended contact, i.e. peer modelling of positive intergroup contacts.

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