11This work presents methodological advances in the integration of life-cycle indicators into energy system The first comprehensive experience regarding the methodological hybridisation of LCA and 44 energy optimisation modelling was carried out within the framework of the NEEDS project to 45 estimate the external costs of power generation (NEEDS, 2008(NEEDS, , 2009). This hybridisation relies 46 on the use of LCA flows to modify the processes in TIMES and monetise the impacts assuming 47 extra costs (externalities) by using a third tool, ExternE (Bickel and Friedrich, 2005). Brown et al. This paper aims to deeply integrate environmental indicators into the core of TIMES by using 52 the LCA methodology to take into account both direct and indirect environmental burdens. The 53 latter are difficult to allocate in a TIMES model and typically involve a large number of 54 background processes. This methodological LCA-TIMES combination enriches the LCA 55
a b s t r a c tThe potential scale of carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) under long-term decarbonisation scenarios means that analysis on the contribution of large international CO 2 storage reservoirs is critical. This paper compares the potentially key role of CCS within cost-optimizing energy systems modelling at the national level (ensuring country-specific technical, economic and policy detail), and the regional level (ensuring transboundary electricity and CO 2 trade). Analysis at alternate model scales investigates the full range of drivers on the feasibility and trade-offs in using the Utsira formation as a common North Sea CO 2 storage resource. A robust finding is that low carbon electricity is a primary decarbonisation pathway and that CCS plays a key role (32-40%) within this portfolio. This paper confirms that the overall driver of the amount of CCS utilized is the climate policy, with by 2050 a total of 475-570 MtCO 2 captured and stored (of which 110-120 MtCO 2 is stored in Utsira) under an 80% CO 2 reduction target. Modelled country differences are much larger due to specific national policies and to regional (EU) commodity trading. From 2030 onwards, Utsira plays a key role within the CO 2 storage cost curve, with the Netherlands and the UK being the largest contributors, followed by transboundary flows of CO 2 from other countries. However, overall regional CCS flows may be larger (for example under low fossil fuel prices) than the estimated (and uncertain) maximum annual injection rates into Utsira which could potentially represent a significant constraint.
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