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Highlights 13 The cost-optimal choice of energy technologies in a ZEB is determined 14  This paper presents a methodology for determining ZEB buildings' cost optimal energy system design 24 seen from the building owner's perspective. The added value of this work is the inclusion of peak load 25 tariffs and feed-in-tariffs, the facilitation of load shifting by use of a thermal storage, along with the 26 integrated optimisation of the investment and operation of the energy technologies. The model allows for 27 detailed understanding of the hourly operation of the building, and how the ZEB interacts with the 28 electricity grid through the characteristics of its net electric load profile. The modelling framework can be 29 adapted to fit individual countries' ZEB definitions. The findings are important for policy makers as they 30 identify how subsidies and EPBD's regulations influence the preferred energy technology choice, which 31 subsequently determines its grid interaction. A case study of a Norwegian school building shows that the 32 heat technology is altered from HP to bio boiler when the ZEB requirement is applied. 33

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Abstract-Emerging infrastructure for residential meter communication and data processing carries the potential to control household electrical demand within local power system constraints. Deferral of load control can be incentivised through electricity tariff price structure which can in turn reshape a daily load profile. This paper presents a stochastic bottom-up model designed to predict the change in domestic electricity profile invoked by consumer reaction to electricity unit price, with submodels comprising user behaviour, price response and dependency between behaviour and electric demand. The developed models are used to analyse the demand side management potential of the most relevant energy consuming activities through a simulated German household demonstrating that in the given scenario 8% of the annual electricity demand is shifted, leading to a 35e annual saving. However, a 7% higher than average peak load results from the structure of the tariff signal modelled herein. A discussion on selected aspects for tariff design for categories of typical household appliances is included.

This work introduces a generic methodology to determine the hourly average CO2eq. intensity of the electricity mix of a bidding zone. The proposed method is based on the logic of input–output models and avails the balance between electricity generation and demand. The methodology also takes into account electricity trading between bidding zones and time-varying CO2eq. intensities of the electricity traded. The paper shows that it is essential to take into account electricity imports and their varying CO2eq. intensities for the evaluation of the CO2eq. intensity in Scandinavian bidding zones. Generally, the average CO2eq. intensity of the Norwegian electricity mix increases during times of electricity imports since the average CO2eq. intensity is normally low because electricity is mainly generated from hydropower. Among other applications, the CO2eq. intensity can be used as a penalty signal in predictive controls of building energy systems since ENTSO-E provides 72 h forecasts of electricity generation. Therefore, as a second contribution, the demand response potential for heating a single-family residential building based on the hourly average CO2eq. intensity of six Scandinavian bidding zones is investigated. Predictive rule-based controls are implemented into a building performance simulation tool (here IDA ICE) to study the influence that the daily fluctuations of the CO2eq. intensity signal have on the potential overall emission savings. The results show that control strategies based on the CO2eq. intensity can achieve emission reductions, if daily fluctuations of the CO2eq. intensity are large enough to compensate for the increased electricity use due to load shifting. Furthermore, the results reveal that price-based control strategies usually lead to increased overall emissions for the Scandinavian bidding zones as the operation is shifted to nighttime, when cheap carbon-intensive electricity is imported from the continental European power grid.

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