When people focus attention or carry out a demanding task, their breathing changes. But which parameters of respiration vary exactly and can respiration reliably be used as an index of cognitive load? These questions are addressed in the present systematic review of empirical studies investigating respiratory behavior in response to cognitive load. Most reviewed studies were restricted to time and volume parameters while less established, yet meaningful parameters such as respiratory variability have rarely been investigated. The available results show that respiratory behavior generally reflects cognitive processing and that distinct parameters differ in sensitivity: While mentally demanding episodes are clearly marked by faster breathing and higher minute ventilation, respiratory amplitude appears to remain rather stable. The present findings further indicate that total variability in respiratory rate is not systematically affected by cognitive load whereas the correlated fraction decreases. In addition, we found that cognitive load may lead to overbreathing as indicated by decreased end-tidal CO2 but is also accompanied by elevated oxygen consumption and CO2 release. However, additional research is needed to validate the findings on respiratory variability and gas exchange measures. We conclude by outlining recommendations for future research to increase the current understanding of respiration under cognitive load.

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Objective: The goal was to investigate the influence of the tendency to catastrophize somatic symptoms and body awareness on motion-related sickness. Background: Influences of emotional and cognitive-evaluative processes on the genesis of motion sickness or cybersickness have rarely been investigated. Brain imaging studies showed activation during cybersickness, resembling the pattern found for pain processing. Two aspects often investigated in this context are pain catastrophizing and body awareness. The present two studies investigated the relationship of motion-related sickness to two tendencies involved in pain processing: pain catastrophizing and body awareness. Method: In the first study, 115 participants reported their motion sickness history, pain catastrophizing, and body awareness. In the second study, 40 participants were exposed to a virtual reality and reported their experience of cybersickness as well as their pain catastrophizing and body awareness. Results: Pain catastrophizing was positively correlated to motion sickness history and cybersickness. Body awareness did not show a linear effect on motion sickness history or cybersickness. However, the interaction effect of pain catastrophizing and body awareness was significant in both studies. Conclusion: Pain catastrophizing seems to have a detrimental effect on cybersickness symptoms. Body awareness moderated the relationship in the sense that the combination of high pain catastrophizing and low body awareness lead to the highest sickness levels. Application: Affective and cognitive modulation of cybersickness symptoms should be considered when exposing risk groups to motion-related adverse stimuli.

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Abstract. The Temperament Structure Scales (TSS) are used in the selection of pilots, air traffic controllers, and astronauts at the German Aerospace Center (DLR). As there is evidence for the predictive validity of the TSS, its relationship with the popular Big Five factors as indicators of construct validity is investigated. Two samples comprising either European astronaut candidates (N = 902) or German pilot candidates (N = 249) were used. Analyses show consistent commonalities of several TSS scales with four Big Five factors (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness). The TSS cover most of the broad Big Five factors and additionally provide a more detailed and suitable profile with unique constructs for the selection of aerospace personnel. The TSS are thus recommended for use without additional personality inventories that measure the broad Big Five factors only.