No abstract

Sixty females and 60 males between 10 and 15 years of age were interviewed about difficulties in current and past close same-sex friendships. Based on prior studies, it was hypothesized that females' closest same-sex friendships would be more fragile than those of males. Analyses comparing only the closest same-sex friendship of the two sexes demonstrated that females' current friendships were of a shorter duration, that females were more distressed than males when imagining the potential termination of their friendships, that more females' than males' friends already had done something to hurt the friendship, and that females had more former friendships that had ended than males had. Possible reasons are discussed for the greater vulnerability of this type of relationship for females.

Researchers of peer relations in late middle childhood and early adolescence have often neglected to examine the context in which social relations occur. The present study was designed to examine one aspect of the context of peer relations-the social networks of males and females. Fourth- and fifth-grade children were asked to rate their peers using friendship and play rating scales and to describe their same-sex peers in open-ended interviews. Although males and females did not differ in the number of best friends they reported, males were found to have larger social networks than females. Further, for males, position in a social network was more highly linked with acceptance by the peer group. Finally, males were concerned with attributes that could be construed as important for status in the peer group, and females were concerned with attributes that appeared essential to relationships with a few friends.

This study examined age and sex differences in dyadic and group interaction in a standardized setting. Seven classes of 4-year-old children and 6 classes of 6-year-old children participated. From these classes, 13 male playgroups and 13 female playgroups were formed. The playgroups were videotaped, and frequencies of dyadic and group interaction were tabulated. Results showed that boys and girls at both ages engaged in similar frequencies but different patterns of dyadic interaction. Only 6-year-old boys, however, interacted in groups. The discussion considers the etiology of these age and sex differences.

Theoretical models based on primate evidence suggest that social structure determines the costs and benefits of particular aggressive strategies. In humans, males more than females interact in groups of unrelated same-sex peers, and larger group size predicts success in inter-group contests. In marked contrast, human females form isolated one-on-one relationships with fewer instrumental benefits, so social exclusion constitutes a more useful strategy. If this model is accurate, then human social exclusion should be utilized by females more than males and females should be more sensitive to its occurrence. Here we present four studies supporting this model. In Study 1, using a computerized game with fictitious opponents, we demonstrate that females are more willing than males to socially exclude a temporary ally. In Study 2, females report more actual incidents of social exclusion than males do. In Study 3, females perceive cues revealing social exclusion more rapidly than males do. Finally, in Study 4, females’ heart rate increases more than males’ in response to social exclusion. Together, results indicate that social exclusion is a strategy well-tailored to human females’ social structure.

Throughout their lives, women provide for their own and their children's and grandchildren's needs and thus must minimize their risk of incurring physical harm. Alliances with individuals who will assist them in attaining these goals increase their probability of survival and reproductive success. High status in the community enhances access to physical resources and valuable allies. Kin, a mate, and affines share a mother's genetic interests, whereas unrelated women constitute primary competitors. From early childhood onwards, girls compete using strategies that minimize the risk of retaliation and reduce the strength of other girls. Girls' competitive strategies include avoiding direct interference with another girl's goals, disguising competition, competing overtly only from a position of high status in the community, enforcing equality within the female community and socially excluding other girls.

The present study was designed to examine sex differences in children's preferences for dyadic and group interaction in early childhood. In Study 1, a professional puppeteer interacted with 21 females and 20 males 4 and 5 years of age using 1 (dyad) and 3 (group) puppets in a within-subjects design. Enjoyment of the 2 conditions was assessed through frequency of smiling and eye contact. In addition, sociometric techniques were used to measure the size of children's play networks, and observations of naturally occurring dyadic and group interaction were conducted. Study 2 was a replication of the puppet play procedure used in Study 1 with 38 females and 37 males 3 and 4 years of age. In both studies, females were found to enjoy dyadic interaction more than males. In addition, some evidence suggests that males may enjoy group interaction more than females. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical explanations for sex differences in preferences for interaction with differing numbers of peers.

Theoretical analyses and studies with children suggest that females are more likely than males to respond to threats of social exclusion with exclusion. Here we present a series of studies using a modified version of a computerized competitive game that participants play against two fictitious opponents. In previous studies, females and males have typically made identical strategy choices when playing this game. We show that when players are told that the two fictitious opponents may form an exclusionary alliance against them, females modify their competitive strategies by forming more preventive exclusionary alliances than males do. These results support the idea that adult females are more likely than males to form preventive exclusionary alliances when faced with a social threat. The results further suggest that females and males compete in different ways.