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The findings suggest that alcohol advertising may predispose young people to drinking. As a result, efforts to prevent drinking and drinking problems among young people should give attention to countering the potential effects of alcohol advertising.

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This paper considers three potentially important modifications to the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein, 1980). It was hypothesized that behavioural norms, or beliefs about the behaviours of others, are important influences above and beyond subjective norms; the effects of attitudes and normative beliefs on intentions and behaviours are interdependent and interactive rather than additive; and the beliefs underlying subjective and behavioural norms are multidimensional rather than unidimensional. These hypotheses were tested in two surveys of smoking intentions and behaviour. The respondents in the first study were primary school children and those in the second study were college students. In both cases behavioural norms and the attitude-normative belief interactions led to significant increases in the prediction of smoking intentions and behaviour. Exploratory factor analyses also suggested that the beliefs underlying subjective norms may be multidimensional rather than unidimensional. These results thus support the hypotheses and suggest that the theory of reasoned action should be modified accordingly.

Aims-The study examined relationships between alcohol control policies and adolescent alcohol use in 26 countries.Design-Cross-sectional analyses of alcohol policy ratings based on the Alcohol Policy Index (API), per capita consumption, and national adolescent survey data. Setting-Data are from 26 countries.Participants-Adolescents (15-17 years old) who participated in the 2003 ESPAD (European countries) or national secondary school surveys in Spain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the USA.Measurements-Alcohol control policy ratings based on the API; prevalence of alcohol use, heavy drinking, and first drink by age 13 based on national secondary school surveys; per capita alcohol consumption for each country in 2003.Analysis-Correlational and linear regression analyses were conducted to examine relationships between alcohol control policy ratings and past-30-day prevalence of adolescent alcohol use, heavy drinking, and having first drink by age 13. Per capita consumption of alcohol was included as a covariate in regression analyses.Findings-More comprehensive API ratings and alcohol availability and advertising control ratings were inversely related to the past-30-day prevalence of alcohol use and prevalence rates for drinking 3-5 times and 6 or more times in the past 30 days. Alcohol advertising control was also inversely related to the prevalence of past-30-day heavy drinking and having first drink by age 13. Most of the relationships between API, alcohol availability and advertising control and drinking prevalence rates were attenuated and no longer statistically significant when controlling for per capita consumption in regression analyses, suggesting that alcohol use in the general population may confound or mediate observed relationships between alcohol control policies and youth alcohol consumption. Several of the inverse relationships remained statistically significant when controlling for per capita consumption.Conclusions-More comprehensive and stringent alcohol control policies, particularly policies affecting alcohol availability and marketing, are associated with lower prevalence and frequency of adolescent alcohol consumption and age of first alcohol use. The societal costs of alcohol consumption by youth and the burden of alcohol use on disease in general have prompted many countries to implement policies restricting alcohol availability in order to reduce consumption and related harm among young people [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Such regulatory policies include setting a minimum legal purchase or drinking age, restricting the types of alcoholic beverages sold in stores, restricting the density of stores selling alcoholic beverages in a given area, restricting the hours of business when alcohol can be sold, mandatory training of alcoholic beverage servers, and increasing the price of alcohol [4][5][6]. The aim of such policies is to increase the "full price" of alcohol for youth by increasing the resources necessary to obtain it or the potential costs for possessing or consuming it [4,5]. Alco...

This paper summarizes some of the major principles of belief system theory and describes the method of value self-confrontation. An example of how value selfconfrontation can be used to modify environmental values is provided. The research on value self-confrontation is reviewed and critically evaluated. Although there is support for belief system theory and for the eficacy of value selfconfrontation as a means of inducing long-term change in important values, attitudes, and behaviors, a number of important questions remain unanswered. In particular, the psychological mechanisms underlying change in values, attitudes, and behaviors after value self-confrontation require clarijication and further study.Belief system theory (Ball-Rokeach, Rokeach, & Grube, 1984;Rokeach, 1968aRokeach, , 1968bRokeach, , 1973 provides a framework for understanding how attitudes, values, and behaviors are organized and the conditions under which they will remain stable or undergo change. Value self-confrontation is a method for initiat-