The paper presents the results of a study of heavy metals (HMs) concentrations in six retention reservoirs located in the lowland area of western Poland. The objectives of this study were to analyze the Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn concentrations, assess contamination and ecological risk, analyze the spatial variability of HM concentrations and identify potential sources and factors determining the concentration and spatial distribution. The bottom sediment pollution by HMs was assessed on the basis of the index of geo-accumulation (Igeo), enrichment factor (EF), pollution load index (PLI) and metal pollution index (MPI). To assess the ecological risk associated with multiple HMs, the mean probable effect concentration (PEC) quotient (Qm-PEC) and the toxic risk index (TRI) were used. In order to determine the similarities and differences between sampling sites in regard to the HM concentration, cluster analysis (CA) was applied. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to assess the impact of grain size, total organic matter (TOM) content and sampling site location on HM spatial distribution. Additionally, PCA was used to assess the impact of catchment, reservoir characteristics and hydrological conditions. The values of Igeo, EF, MPI and PLI show that Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb mainly originate from geogenic sources. In contrast, Zn concentrations come from point sources related to agriculture. The mean PEC quotient (Qm-PEC) and TRI value show that the greatest ecological risk occurred at the inlet to the reservoir and near the dam. The analysis showed that the HMs concentration depends on silt and sand content. However, the Pb, Cu, Cd and Zn concentrations are associated with TOM as well. The relationship between individual HMs and silt was stronger than with TOM. The PCA results indicate that HMs with the exception of Zn originate from geogenic sources—weathering of rock material. However, the Ni concentration may additionally depend on road traffic. The results show that a reservoir with more frequent water exchange has higher HMs concentrations, whereas the Zn concentration in bottom sediments is associated with agricultural point sources.

The development of dams alters the structure and function of river ecosystems. Dam reservoirs have an impact on flow regime, sediment transport, and water quality. Damming a river decreases water velocity, which leads to an increase in suspended sediments deposition. Reservoirs often are described as water treatment plants because they trap water contaminants and suspended sediments. Suspended sediments are the principal factor for heavy metals transport [1][2]. Human activity increased input of heavy metals to water bodies where sediments are deposited [3][4][5][6][7][8]. Amin et al. [9] and Zheng et. al. [10] reported that more than 90% of the heavy metal load in the water bodies has been associated with suspended particulate matter and sediments. The spatial and seasonal variations of heavy metal loads are controlled by suspended sediment concentrations as well as water pH, which controls the absorbance of heavy metals [11].The spatial distribution of sediments in a reservoir is not uniform [12]. Toward the dam, sediments are usually more fine-grained and lithologically uniform [13]. The heavy metals concentrations generally increased with the decrease of particle size and increase of organic matter. The concentration of heavy metals in Pol. AbstractThe aim of this study was to analyze the heavy metals transport in a river-reservoir system. Sediment samples from 25 locations (9 from the Powa River and 16 from the Stare Miasto Reservoir) were analyzed for trace metals contents (Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb). The relationships between heavy metal concentrations and bottom sediment physical properties were determined with the use of the multivariate statistical techniques cluster analysis (CA), principal component analysis (PCA), and canonical correspondence analysis (CCA). The results showed that concentrations of heavy metals in the sediments of the reservoir were higher than those in the bottom sediments of the river. Concentrations of heavy metals in bottom sediments in the river above the reservoir were characterized by lower spatial variability. Decisive influence on heavy metal concentrations of bottom sediments had silt, clay, and total organic matter content.

The paper presents the results of the effects of control drainage (CD) on the groundwater table and subsurface outflow in Central Poland. The hydrologic model DRAINMOD was used to simulate soil water balance with drain spacing of 7 and 14 m, different initial groundwater Table 40, 60 and 80 cm b.s.l., and dates at the beginning of control drainage of 1 March, 15 March, 1 April, and 15 April. The CD restricts flow at the drain outlet to maintain a water table during the growing season. Simulations were made for the periods from March to September for the years 2014, 2017, and 2018, which were average, wet, and dry, respectively. The simulations showed a significant influence of the initial groundwater tables and date blocking the outflow from the drainage network on the obtained results. In the conditions of central Poland, the use of CD is rational only when it is started between 1 and 15 March. In this case, the groundwater table can be increased from 10 to 33 cm (7 m spacing) and from 10 to 41 cm (14 m spacing) in relation to the conventional system (free drainage-FD). In the case of blocking the outflow on 1 March, the reduction is about 80% on average in the period from March to September. With a delay in blocking the outflow, the impact of CDs decreases and ranges from 8% to 50%. Studies have shown that the proper use of the drainage network infrastructure complies with the idea of sustainable development, as it allows efficient water management, by reduction of the outflow and, thus, nitrates from agricultural areas. Furthermore, CD solutions can contribute to mitigating the effects of climate change on agriculture by reducing drought and flood risk.Sustainability 2019, 11, 4201 2 of 18 water users to be affected by the consequences of climate change in different way [5]. Consequently, this will lead to exacerbated competition among water users and sectors [6].One of the main challenges for sustainable development is the adaptation of national economies to climate change. Most often, climate change adaptation projects in Poland are carried out in cities and areas subject to urban sprawl [7][8][9]. Agriculture is a key sector for food supply, and its functioning depends largely on access to water. It is, therefore, necessary to take various actions to protect this sector of national economies against climate change. The most frequently asked question is whether and to what extent it is possible to take action in the adaptation of agriculture to climate change while maintaining high environmental standards and accounting for the acceptance of society and economic balance.The greatest scope for the mitigation of the effects of climate change is in improving adaptive capacity and responding to changes in water demands [10]. Agricultural subsurface drainage, popularly known as tile drainage, is an essential water management practice in agricultural regions with seasonal high groundwater tables [11]. Around 193.9 × 10 6 ha of arable land, and permanent crops have been drained around the world. In 30 countries, th...

Pollution of river bottom sediments with heavy metals (HMs) has emerged as a main environmental issue related to intensive anthropopressure on the water environment. In this context, the risk of harmful effects of the HMs presence in the bottom sediments of the Warta River, the third longest river in Poland, has been assessed. The concentrations of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb in the river bottom sediments collected at 24 sample collection stations along the whole river length have been measured and analyzed. Moreover, in the GIS environment, a method predicting variation of HMs concentrations along the whole river length, not at particular sites, has been proposed. Analysis of the Warta River bottom sediment pollution with heavy metals in terms of the indices: the Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo), Enrichment Factor (EF), Pollution Load Index (PLI), and Metal Pollution Index (MPI), has proved that, in 2016, the pollution was heavier than in 2017. Assessment of the potential toxic effects of HMs accumulated in bottom sediments, made on the basis of Threshold Effect Concentration (TEC), Midpoint Effect Concentration (MEC), and Probable Effect Concentration (PEC) values, and the Toxic Risk Index (TRI), has shown that the ecological hazard in 2017 was much lower. Cluster analysis revealed two main groups of sample collection stations at which bottom sediments showed similar chemical properties. Changes in classification of particular sample collection stations into the two groups analyzed over a period of two subsequent years indicated that the main impact on the concentrations of HMs could have their point sources in urbanized areas and river fluvial process.

Control drainage (CD) is a common practice implemented to control the water balance of drainage fields by increasing the amount of water retained in soil. Worldwide studies suggest that climate change can reduce the effectiveness of CD solutions, but no study of CD effects has been carried out in Polish conditions yet. In this study, the DRAINMOD (Wayne Skaggs, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA) computer simulation model was used to predict the effects of CD on the time horizons of 2021–2050 (near future) and 2071–2100 (far future) assuming the Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5 emission scenario. The effectiveness of CD solutions is presented for a drainage network with spacing of 7 or 14 m. Additionally, different dates of blocking the outflow from the drainage network (1st and 15th of March and 1st and 15th of April) and different initial groundwater table conditions (0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 m) were assumed. All simulations for different variants were carried out for the same period, i.e., from 1st of March to 30th of September. The results of climate models indicated that in the area of central-western Poland in the near and far future there will be an increase in air temperatures by 1.02 and 1.97 °C, respectively, and in precipitation by 5.98% and 10.15%, respectively. In addition, there will be a change in the structure of precipitation, especially with respect to the extension of rain-free periods and an increase in the amount of extreme daily precipitation. The effect of climate change will be a decrease in the mean groundwater table in the fields equipped with drainage systems from 2 to 5 cm. In addition, the number of days on which groundwater table will be above the level of the drainage network will decrease. For the drainage network with spacing of 7 m, the time of the groundwater table above the level of the drainage network will decrease by 5 and 7 days in the near and far future, respectively, while for the drainage network with spacing of 14 m, it will decrease by 4 and 7 days. Climate change will also reduce sub-surface outflow. Subsurface outflows will be smaller than those currently recorded on average by 11% and 17% and 12% and 18% for 7 m and 14 m spacing drainage networks, in the near and far future, respectively. The increase in rainfall intensity in the near and far future will result in a fivefold increase in surface outflow in comparison to the present situation. The simulations show that the greatest effectiveness of CD solutions will be achieved by starting the blocking of outflow from the drainage network on the 1st of March. The implementation of CD solutions since April in the near and far future will allow maintaining the groundwater table at the level presently observed for the conventional network (free drainage-FD).

The paper presents the problems related to the functioning of reservoirs in the Wielkopolska province and suggests their possible solutions. The reservoirs chosen as examples include typical dam constructions with a single water body (Jeziorsko, Rydzyna), two water body objects with separated preliminary part (Stare Miasto, Kowalskie, Radzyny) and lateral constructions (Pakosław, Jutrosin). The reservoirs were built in period from 1970 to 2014. They differ in construction, functions and water management rules. Analysis of the main problems related to the reservoir functioning is aimed at finding ways of improving the construction of new reservoirs that would satisfy increasingly stringent environmental and legal restrictions and the methods of water management in the reservoirs. On the basis of a questionnaire filled in by the reservoir operators, the main problem is water quality. Especially the huge inflow of biogenic compounds causes blooms of algae and overgrowth with riparian vegetation. Some difficulties are also related to management of the reservoirs of multipurpose operation. It is difficult to take into account the requirements of environmental flow maintenance, flood protection, water supply for agriculture and water use for tourism and recreation and hydropower generation, etc.

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The main problem related to exploitation of reservoirs is the overgrowth of aquatic vegetation, which leads to the gradual disappearance of water bodies. Currently, satellite imagery data are an advantageous source for monitoring aquatic vegetation. The main goal of this study was to assess different spectral indices (ARVI, NDVI, NDCI, NDAVI, WAVI) for detection of the overgrowing process in reservoirs. Three reservoirs located in the western part of Poland were selected for analysis: Przebędowo, Jeżewo and Jezioro Kowalskie. The analysis was carried out on the basis of Sentinel-2 satellite imagery. All calculations were performed in ArcGIS 10.5 and Quantum GIS software. Results obtained for each of the spectral indices were verified on the basis of high-resolution color orthophotomaps. The results show that selected indices detect different overgrowth areas. The WAVI index shows the strongest agreement with reference data. The agreement between reference data for each pixel was calculated on the basis of the Kappa coefficient. Regardless of analyzed reservoir, the WAVI index has the highest value of the Kappa coefficient. Additionally, the analysis suggests that Sentinel-2 data can be used to identify emergent plant areas for reservoirs characterized by elongation ratio, width and inundation area. The highest uncertainty of results is shown by emergent plants characterized by small, dispersed areas and located near the banks of the water bodies.