Abstract. A semi-nested, multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based on the amplification of the sequences of the 18S small subunit ribosomal RNA (ssrRNA) gene was tested in a field trial in Equatorial Guinea (a hyperendemic focus of malaria in west central Africa). The method uses a primary PCR amplification reaction with a universal reverse primer and two forward primers specific for the genus Plasmodium and to mammals (the mammalian-specific primer was included as a positive control to distinguish uninfected cases from inhibition of the PCR). The second amplification is carried out with the same Plasmodium genus-specific forward primer and four specific reverse primers for each human Plasmodium species. The PCR amplified products are differentiated by fragment size after electrophoresis on a 2% agarose gel. Four villages from three regions of the island of Bioko (Equatorial Guinea) and two suspected Plasmodium vivax-P. ovale infections from the hospital of Malabo were tested by microscopy and PCR. The PCR method showed greater sensitivity and specificity than microscopic examination and confirmed the existence of a focus of P. vivax infections in Equatorial Guinea suspected by microscopic examination. It also provided evidence of several mixed infections, mainly P. falciparum and P. malariae, the two predominant species causing malaria in Equatorial Guinea.

The current study was performed on the Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea) with the aim of establishing a rapid assessment technique for mapping malaria risk and measuring vector densities. Human bait collection, tent traps, light traps, indoor resting collection, and window exit traps were used to collect Anopheles gambiae s.s. and Anopheles funestus, the two anopheline species involved in malaria transmission in this island. Capture data were used to compare differences in the behavior and vectorial capacity of An. gambiae s.s. and An. funestus. Differences in the two species of mosquitoes were found in relation to the season and trapping methods used. Entomological inoculation rates (EIR) for Plasmodium falciparum were calculated using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test with individual anopheline mosquitoes from human bait collections in two villages during the dry and rainy seasons. P. falciparum sporozoites were detected from both dissected heads/thorax and abdomens of both species.

The use of a new PCR-based method for the diagnosis of malaria in the Spanish Malaria Reference Laboratory has promoted an increase in confirmed cases of malaria. From August 1997 to July 1998, a total of 192 whole-blood samples and 71 serum samples from 168 patients were received from the hospitals of the Spanish National Health System. Most of the patients came from west-central African countries (85%). This molecular method showed more sensitivity and specificity than microscopy, detecting 12.4% more positive samples than microscopy and 13% of mixed infections undetectable by Giemsa stain. Plasmodium falciparum was the main species detected, with 68% of the total positive malaria cases, followed by Plasmodium malariae(29%), Plasmodium vivax (14%), and Plasmodium ovale (7%), including mixed infections in all cases. This report consists of the first wide, centralized survey of malaria surveillance in Spain. The reference laboratory conducted the analysis of all imported cases in order to detect trends in acquisition. The use of a seminested multiplex PCR permitted confirmation of the origins of the infections and the Plasmodium species involved and confirmation of the effectiveness of drug treatments. This PCR also allowed the detection of the presence in Spain of primaquine-tolerantP. vivax strains from west-central Africa, as well as the detection of a P. falciparum infection induced by transfusion.

Background: Malaria has traditionally been a major endemic disease in Equatorial Guinea. Although parasitaemia prevalence on the insular region has been substantially reduced by vector control in the past few years, the prevalence in the mainland remains over 50% in children younger than five years. The aim of this study is to investigate the risk factors for parasitaemia and treatment seeking behaviour for febrile illness at country level, in order to provide evidence that will reinforce the EG National Malaria Control Programme.

Stunting and anemia are public health problems in Equatorial Guinea. Integrated strategies, including fighting poverty and improving maternal education, should be undertaken.

Entomological studies conducted on the island of Bioko and the mainland province, Río Muni, in Equatorial Guinea provided baseline data for a pilot malaria control program. The main species collected resting in houses at low density were Anopheles gambiae s.l. Giles and Anopheles funestus Giles. An. gambiae s.l. density increased during the rainy season, whereas An. funestus populations remained stable during both dry and wet seasons. Both species tended to be endophilic and were not collected resting or biting outdoors. Overall, delayed sporozoite rates were about 10% for both species and were highest in the dry season. An. gambiae s.l. from the mainland showed resistance to 4% DDT, but the island population was still susceptible. All populations were completely susceptible to 5% malathion and 0.025% deltamethrin.

Abstract. From 1992-1999, we have assessed the therapeutic efficacy of three malaria treatment regimens (chloroquine 25 mg/kg over three days, pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine 1.25/25 mg/kg in one dose, and quinine 25-30 mg/kg daily in three oral doses over a four-, five-, or seven-day period) in 1,189 children under age 10 at Malabo Regional Hospital in Equatorial Guinea. Of those children, 958 were followed up clinically and parasitologically for 14 days. With chloroquine, the failure rate varied from 55% in 1996 to 40% in 1999; the early treatment failure rate increased progressively over the years, from 6% in 1992 to 30% in 1999. With pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine, the failure rate varied from 0% in 1996 to 16% in 1995. The short quinine treatment regimens used in 1992 and 1993 (4 and 5 days, respectively) resulted in significantly higher failure rates (19% and 22%, respectively) than the 7d regimen (3-5.5%). We conclude that: a) failure rates for chloroquine are in the change period (>25%), and urgent action is needed; b) pyrimethamine/ sulfadoxine failure rates are in the alert period (6-15%), and surveillance must be continued; and c) quinine failure rates are in the grace period (<6%), so quinine can be recommended.

Despite being one of the continents with the least greenhouse gas emissions, no continent is being struck as severely by climate change (CC) as Africa. Mosquito-borne diseases (MBD) cause major human diseases in this continent. Current knowledge suggests that MBD range could expand dramatically in response to CC. This study aimed at assessing the relationship between CC and MBD in Africa. Methods For this purpose, a systematic peer review was carried out, considering all articles indexed in PubMed, Scopus, Embase and CENTRAL. Search terms referring to MBD, CC and environmental factors were screened in title, abstract and keywords.Results A total of twenty-nine studies were included, most of them on malaria (61%), being Anopheles spp . (61%) the most commonly analyzed vector, mainly in Eastern Africa (48%). Seventy-nine percent of these studies were based on predictive models. Seventy-two percent of the reviewed studies considered that CC impacts on MBD epidemiology. MBD prevalence will increase according to 69% of the studies while 17% predicted a decrease. MBD expansion throughout the continent was also predicted. Most studies showed a positive relationship between observed or predicted results and CC. However, there was a great heterogeneity in methodologies and a tendency to reductionism, not integrating other variables that interact with both the environment and MBD. In addition, most results have not yet been tested. A global health approach is desirable in this kind of research. Nevertheless, we cannot wait for science to approve something that needs to be addressed now to avoid greater effects in the future.