In this data era where data is the new oil, internet data traffic is growing significantly each year [1, 2]. With the advent of state of the art technologies on data transmission and processing in the last decade, the internet has witnessed an increase in the intensity and the volume of internet activities globally [3]. User-generated dataset contains useful statistics and information that can be harnessed for learning but this may be challenged by privacy issues [4, 5]. Internet activities generate data traffic of various kinds; during both data download and upload. Monitoring and analysis of internet traffic is becoming more challenging daily due to sheer increase in the volume of the internet data traffic and the large capacity of connection trunks [2]. Internet traffic measurement and management is vital to the operations of Internet Service Providers for predicting future demands [6], and traffic monitoring can be achieved using flow statistics tools. Internet traffic measurement is typically deployed

A compact Hexa-band Bio-inspired antenna is presented in this paper. The structure of the proposed antenna is realized from a semi-Vine-leaf shape, Defected Ground Structure (DGS) and arc-slots techniques. The total dimension of the antenna is 0.35λd x 0.14λd; where λd is the guided wavelength at low frequency (2.37GHz). The design begins with a semi- Vitis vinifera leaf-shaped radiating patch monopole structure, fed with an asymmetric microstrip feedline to achieve compactness. Five (5) arc slits are then introduced on the radiating patch of the initiator with an intention to create band notches and thereby results in multiband and further miniaturization. The proposed antenna is analyzed, simulated and fabricated. The measurement results of the proposed antenna show that the antenna operates at 2.37GHz, 3.06GHz, 3.52GHz, 4.28GHz, 4.88GHz, and 6.0GHz with a -10dB fractional bandwidth of 11.97%, 4.61%, 12.43%, 6.77%, 2.46%, and 11.55% respectively. The peak gain of the proposed antenna is 3.21 dBi. The radiation patterns of the proposed antenna are Bi-directional at XZ-plane and XY-plane, but Omnidirectional at YZ-plane. Owing to the compactness of the antenna, suitable radiation pattern, acceptable gain and high radiation efficiency, the proposed antenna is suitable for several applications such as Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) Band, Radar, WiMAX, 5G mid-band, Bluetooth, WLAN, WiMAX, LTE, and Wi-Fi. The contributions of this work are: (i) the use of asymmetric microstrip feedline for miniaturization purpose contrary to the commonly used asymmetric coplanar strip; (ii) simple formulation for the predictions of notch bands introduced by the slit on the radiating patch; and (iii) presentation of ultra-compact hexa-band antenna compared to the existing multiband antenna.

The evolution of advancement in communication technologies and ever-increasing demand by users for compact communication devices has necessitated a shift in the design approach to achieve antenna structures that are compact and robust. Owing to the diverse communication requirements, antenna systems operating across wide bands have become a necessity. An antenna that is capable of working effectively in several bands is called wideband antenna. In this work, a bio-inspired microstrip antenna (Bi-MPA) for wideband application is proposed and simulated. The radiating patch of the proposed Bi-MPA is the shape of Carica Papaya leaf. The structure was realized through the perturbation of the circular shape patch. The proposed antenna has an impedance bandwidth of 4.3 GHz (1.9 GHz–6.2 GHz) at a return loss of 10 dB while it exhibits a narrow band at 7.2 GHz (6.99–7.44 GHz) and 9.3 GHz (9.15–9.35 GHz) bands. The gain of the proposed antenna is between 2.60 dB and 10.22 dB and the radiation pattern is quasi-omnidirectional. The proposed Bi-MPA is compact and suitable for global system for mobile communication (GSM1900), Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS), Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN), Long Term Evolution (LTE2300 and LTE2600), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), C-band, X-band, and sub6 GHz fifth-generation (5G) band. Our contribution to the scientific community in this work is that we have proposed a single antenna structure that is suitable for communication in all the bands mentioned in order to ensure compactness in the mobile devices as compared to base station antennas.

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A compact bio‐inspired electromagnetic bandgap integrated wearable antenna (Bio‐EBG‐iwA) is proposed in this work. The Bio‐EBG‐iwA is based on the hybridization of semi‐Vitis vinifera leaf‐shaped patch, asymmetric feedline, reflected G‐shaped slot, partial ground, and a stub on the ground plane. The antenna is built on the locally made textile material called Aso‐oke (Alari) with permittivity and a loss tangent of 1.43 and 0.019, respectively. The dimension of the proposed antenna is 0.20.25emλg×0.10.25emλg×0.00890.25emλg (22 mm × 12 mm × 0.7 mm) at 2.45 GHz. Despite its compactness, the gain of −0.48 and 2.5 dBi are achieved at 2.45 and 5.7 GHz respectively without electromagnetic bandgap (EBG). A dual‐band textile‐based uniplanar compact electromagnetic bandgap (UC‐EBG) is introduced to create isolation between the human tissue and the antenna. The dual‐band UC‐EBG is realized through the use of a modified slitted‐square ring (MSSR) and the 90° rotated H‐shaped patch on Aso‐oke (Alari) with a thickness of 2.1 mm. The periodicity of the proposed UC‐EBG is 34.5 mm. The antenna is placed on a 2 × 2 array of the proposed UC‐EBG separated by a 3 mm foam thickness. The radiation efficiency of 88.97% and 79.85% are achieved at 2.45 and 5.7 GHz respectively. The gain of the proposed UC‐EBG integrated antenna increased from −0.48 and 2.5 dBi to 5.9 and 10.7 dBi at 2.45 and 5.7 GHz, respectively. The front‐to‐back ratio (FBR) of 26.3 dB is achieved with the use of UC‐EBG. The use of UC‐EBG results in a 98.31% and 99.4% reduction in average SAR at 2.45 and 5.7 GHz, respectively. The off‐body and on‐body performance analysis of the proposed UC‐EBG integrated antenna show that the proposed EBG integrated antenna (Bio‐EBG‐iwA) is a suitable candidate for wearable application. To the best of our knowledge, this is the most compact wearable antenna with suitable gain, radiation efficiency, and high FBR. In addition, our proposed UC‐EBG shows that slitting is an effective way of miniaturizing the EBG structure.

A comparative analysis of compact multiband bio-inspired Asymmetric microstrip fed antennas (BioAs-MPAs) is presented in this paper for the first time. The proposed antennas are based on semi-Carica papaya-leaf shaped, semi-Monstera deliciosa-leaf shaped, semi-Vitis vinifera shaped, Defected Ground Structure (DGS) and L-slit techniques. The antennas are built on a 33 × 15 mm2 Rogers duroid 5880 substrate. The modelling equations for resonant frequencies of the proposed arbitrarily shaped radiating patch is based on modified circular patch modelling equations. The semi-Carica papaya-leaf antenna operates at 2.4 GHz and 4.4 GHz, Monstera deliciosa-leaf antenna operates at 2.6 GHz, 4.4 GHz and 5.5 GHz, while Vine-leaf antenna operates at 2.5 GHz and 5.4 GHz. The proposed BioAs-MPAs antennas radiation patterns at E-plane are Bi-directional in all the operating frequencies with suitable X-Pol purity and have Omnidirectional radiation patterns at H-Plane in all the operating frequencies. As a result of the analysis, it was found that each of the bio-inspired structures has its unique merit over the others. Owing to the small size, stable radiation pattern, acceptable gain and high radiation efficiency, the proposed BioAs-MPAs antennas are suitable for ISM band, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, WiMAX, LTE, UMTS, Sub6 GHz 5 G band, ZigBee and RF-Altimeter used in unmanned aerial vehicle and Aviation industry.

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The technology, Long Term Evolution (LTE) developed by 3rd Generation Partnership Project is considered an improved standard in mobile communications when compared to previously attained network standards. LTE with prospects of decreased latency levels and support of downlink and uplink transmission at data rates exceeding 100Mbps and 50Mbps, an effective handover framework needs to be put in place to improve quality of service rendered to the network users and decrease wastage of network resources. This study examines several works carried out on a handover criteria (hysteresis margin) needed for designing an effective handover framework. This margin is based on the received signal strength between both target and serving eNodeBs, and its proper determination amongst other advantages mitigates the rate of unnecessary and repeated handover (ping-pong effect). The model presented in this research integrates the artificial neural network (ANN) mechanism into the determination of hysteresis margin in the LTE handover process which is to minimize handover delay and ping-pong taking into consideration the speed of the user equipment (UE).