Two-photon imaging of endogenous fluorescence can provide physiological and metabolic information from intact tissues. However, simultaneous imaging of multiple intrinsic fluorophores, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide(phosphate) (NAD(P)H), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and retinoids in living systems is generally hampered by sequential multi-wavelength excitation resulting in motion artifacts. Here, we report on efficient and simultaneous multicolor two-photon excitation of endogenous fluorophores with absorption spectra spanning the 750-1040 nm range, using wavelength mixing. By using two synchronized pulse trains at 760 and 1041 nm, an additional equivalent two-photon excitation wavelength at 879 nm is generated, and achieves simultaneous excitation of blue, green and red intrinsic fluorophores. This method permits an efficient simultaneous imaging of the metabolic coenzymes NADH and FAD to be implemented with perfect image coregistration, overcoming the difficulties associated with differences in absorption spectra and disparity in concentration. We demonstrate ratiometric redox imaging free of motion artifacts and simultaneous two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) of NADH and FAD in living tissues. The lifetime gradients of NADH and FAD associated with different cellular metabolic and differentiation states in reconstructed human skin and in the germline of live C. Elegans are thus simultaneously measured. Finally, we present multicolor imaging of endogenous fluorophores and second harmonic generation (SHG) signals during the early stages of Zebrafish embryo development, evidencing fluorescence spectral changes associated with development.Multiphoton microscopy is a powerful tool for label-free and non-invasive functional imaging in small organisms and tissues 1, 2 . Pulsed near infrared excitation light allows in-depth imaging based on contrasts such as endogenous fluorescence 2 , second harmonic generation (SHG) 3 and third harmonic generation (THG) 4 . Endogenous fluorescence in living tissues arises from several intrinsic biomarkers that play important roles in physiological processes 2 . The primary intracellular sources are NAD(P)H and FAD, the two major cofactors of redox reactions in the cell and central regulators of energy production and metabolism 5,6 . Their fluorescence reports on the metabolic activity of cells allowing tissue physiology and processes such as stem cell differentiation, cancer development and neurodegenerative diseases to being non-invasively monitored [7][8][9][10][11][12] . The fluorescence lifetimes of NADH and FAD are different upon binding to the protein during the electron transport chain. FLIM provides sensitive measurements of the free and protein-bound NAD(P)H ratio and of the redox states (NADH/NAD + ) of cells, and can be used to distinguish glycolytic and oxidative phosphorylation metabolic states [13][14][15][16][17] . Monitoring lifetime of free and protein-bound FAD has also been exploited to quantify redox ratio FAD/FADH 2 , and used as a b...

Manipulation of the coordination sphere of an FeII ion can be used to tune the balance between different catalytic pathways for oxidation (OH. versus iron‐based oxidant; see scheme). This reinvestigation of Fenton chemistry uses the iron complex shown as a mechanistic probe.

Chemical models of active sites of diiron oxo proteins have been synthesized. The polydendate ligands are EDTA derivatives which provide a balanced supply of nitrogen atoms and carboxylate groups together with an oxidizable phenyl moiety, thus mimicking both the iron coordination in methane monooxygenase and a nearby substrate site. All the diferric complexes have been characterized in solution by ESI-MS, optical absorption, and in some cases by 1H NMR. In the case of the ligand L1 [L1 = (N,N‘-bis(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)ethylenediamine N,N‘-diacetic acid)], the X-ray structure of the corresponding iron complex has been determined, revealing an original tetranuclear unit, Fe4O2(L1)4·10H2O, issued from the dimerization of two [Fe2O(L1)2] units linked by carboxylate bridges. In a solution containing water or acetate, the tetranuclear complex decomposed into dinuclear complexes, which proved to be able to react with hydrogen peroxide or dioxygen in the presence of ascorbate. The final product was a mononuclear complex identified as [Fe(III)L‘1(H2O)] with L‘1 resulting from the quantitative hydroxylation of L1. The complex and the oxidized ligand were characterized by EPR, NMR, and UV−vis spectroscopies and by mass spectrometry. Labeling experiments showed that with both H2O2 or O2 and ascorbate, the incorporated oxygen came from the oxidant exclusively. This reaction mimicks the transformation of a tyrosine residue, brought into proximity of the active center of Ribonucleotide reductase of Escherichia coli by site-directed mutagenesis, into 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine.

No abstract

An excellent functionalized enzyme model for the active site of methane monooxygenase and ribonucleotide reductase is represented by the μ‐ace‐tato‐ and μ‐oxo‐bridged diiron complex 1. Reaction with H2O2 or O2 in the presence of ascorbate leads to hydroxylation of one phenyl ring to a phenol. This then coordindates to the metal center with formation of a mononuclear complex.

Aluminium salts are widely used to control sweating for personal hygiene purposes. Their mechanism of action as antiperspirants was previously thought to be a superficial plugging of eccrine sweat pores by the aluminium hydroxide gel. Here we present a microfluidic T junction device that mimics sweat ducts, and is designed for the real time study of interactions between sweat and ACH (Aluminium Chloro Hydrate) under conditions that lead to plug formation. We used this device to image and measure the diffusion of aluminium polycationic species in sweat counter flow. We report the results of small angle X-ray scattering experiments performed to determine the structure and composition of the plug, using BSA (Bovine Serum Albumin) as a model of sweat proteins. Our results show that pore occlusion occurs as a result of the aggregation of sweat proteins by aluminium polycations. Mapping of the device shows that this aggregation is initiated in the T junction at the location where the flow of aluminium polycations joins the flow of BSA. The mechanism involves two stages: (1) a nucleation stage in which aggregates of protein and polycations bind to the wall of the sweat duct and form a tenuous membrane, which extends across the junction; (2) a growth stage in which this membrane collects proteins that are carried by hydrodynamic flow in the sweat channel and polycations that diffuse into this channel. These results could open up perspectives to find new antiperspirant agents with an improved efficacy.

Dermal fibroblasts are responsible for the generation of mechanical forces within their surrounding extracellular matrix and can be potentially targeted by anti-aging ingredients. Investigation of the modulation of fibroblast contraction by these ingredients requires the implementation of three-dimensional in situ imaging methodologies. We use multiphoton microscopy to visualize unstained engineered dermal tissue by combining second-harmonic generation that reveals specifically fibrillar collagen and two-photon excited fluorescence from endogenous cellular chromophores. We study the fibroblast-induced reorganization of the collagen matrix and quantitatively evaluate the effect of Y-27632, a RhoA-kinase inhibitor, on dermal substitute contraction. We observe that collagen fibrils rearrange around fibroblasts with increasing density in control samples, whereas collagen fibrils show no remodeling in the samples containing the RhoA-kinase inhibitor. Moreover, we show that the inhibitory effects are reversible. Our study demonstrates the relevance of multiphoton microscopy to visualize three-dimensional remodeling of the extracellular matrix induced by fibroblast contraction or other processes.

No abstract