As industries find that the market for their goods and services is often as closely connected to their quality as to their price, they become more interested in inspection and quality control. Non-destructive testing is one aspect of this topic; the subject of this book is a sub-field of this domain. The techniques for measuring residual stresses have a long history for a technological subject. Yet, in the last decade or so there has been renewed and vigorous interest, and, as a result of this, there has been considerable progress in our understanding and in our methods. It seemed a proper time to bring the new material together in an organized form suitable for a course or for self-teaching, hence this book.After an initial introduction to the qualitative ideas concerning the origin, role, and measurement of residual stresses, we follow with chapters on classical elasticity and the relatively new subject of microplasticity. These are primarily introductory or review in nature, and the reader will find it important to consider further the quoted references if he is to be involved in a continuing basis in this area. There follows a chapter on diffraction theory, and then we fuse these subjects with a chapter on diffraction techniques for measuring stresses and strains which at present is our most general tool for non-destructive evaluation in this area. In Chap. 6 we explore how to evaluate errors in such a measurement, a topic almost as important as the stress itself and certainly vital in automating the measurement. Practical examples are described in Chap. 7 and means for measuring the strain distribution, in Chap. 8, in contrast to the measurement of average values described in the earlier chapters.The Appendices include solutions to the problems given at the end of some of the chapters, Fourier analysis, and sources of useful data.We emphasize diffraction because in our opinion it is the most well understood and reliable tool available for the measurement of stresses. Of course our own background in niffraction colors our opinion, but we hope this book will reveal to the reader why we feel this way.Dr. M. James provided Appendices E and F, and Mr. W. P. Evans supplied many practical examples for Chap. 7. Both gave us helpful comments on the manuscript.

Grazing‐incidence small‐angle X‐ray scattering (GISAXS) is introduced as a method of studying discontinuous thin films. In this method, the incident beam is totally externally reflected from the substrate followed by small‐angle scattering of the refracted beam by the thin film. The experiment described establishes the ability of GISAXS to provide size information for islands formed in the initial stages of thin film growth. The data presented are for gold films of 7 and 15 Å average thicknesses on Corning 7059 glass substrates. The advantages of this technique are that it is non‐destructive, can be done in situ, provides excellent sampling statistics, does not necessarily require a synchrotron source, and is not limited to thin or conducting substrates.

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the strains in the sample coordinate system can be expressed in terms of stresses by the inverse of Eq. (5.9):(5.12 )

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The defect structure of undoped and Sn-doped In2O3 (ITO) materials was studied by preparing powders under different processing environments and performing neutron powder diffraction. The effect of tin doping and oxygen partial pressure was determined. Structural information was obtained by analyzing neutron powder diffraction data using the Rietveld method. The results include positions of the atoms, their thermal displacements, the fractional occupancy of the interstitial oxygen site, and the fractional occupancies of Sn on each of the two nonequivalent cation sites. The tin cations show a strong preference for the b site versus the d site. The measured electrical properties are correlated with the interstitial oxygen populations, which agree with the proposed models for reducible (2SnIn•Oi″)x and nonreducible (2SnIn•3OOOi″)x defect clusters.

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