Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) was pretreated using white-rot fungus Pleurotus floridanus, phosphoric acid or their combination, and the results were evaluated based on the biomass components, and its structural and morphological changes. The carbohydrate losses after fungal, phosphoric acid, and fungal followed by phosphoric acid pretreatments were 7.89%, 35.65%, and 33.77%, respectively. The pretreatments changed the hydrogen bonds of cellulose and linkages between lignin and carbohydrate, which is associated with crystallinity of cellulose of OPEFB. Lateral Order Index (LOI) of OPEFB with no pretreatment, with fungal, phosphoric acid, and fungal followed by phosphoric acid pretreatments were 2.77, 1.42, 0.67, and 0.60, respectively. Phosphoric acid pretreatment showed morphological changes of OPEFB, indicated by the damage of fibre structure into smaller particle size. The fungal-, phosphoric acid-, and fungal followed by phosphoric acid pretreatments have improved the digestibility of OPEFB’s cellulose by 4, 6.3, and 7.4 folds, respectively.
Lignocellulosic carbohydrates, i.e. cellulose and hemicellulose, have abundant potential as feedstock for production of biofuels and chemicals. However, these carbohydrates are generally infiltrated by lignin. Breakdown of the lignin barrier will alter lignocelluloses structures and make the carbohydrates accessible for more efficient bioconversion. White-rot fungi produce ligninolytic enzymes (lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, and laccase) and efficiently mineralise lignin into CO2 and H2O. Biological pretreatment of lignocelluloses using white-rot fungi has been used for decades for ruminant feed, enzymatic hydrolysis, and biopulping. Application of white-rot fungi capabilities can offer environmentally friendly processes for utilising lignocelluloses over physical or chemical pretreatment. This paper reviews white-rot fungi, ligninolytic enzymes, the effect of biological pretreatment on biomass characteristics, and factors affecting biological pretreatment. Application of biological pretreatment for enzymatic hydrolysis, biofuels (bioethanol, biogas and pyrolysis), biopulping, biobleaching, animal feed, and enzymes production are also discussed.
<p>ABSTRAK</p><p>Selulosa bakteri merupakan salah satu biopolimer yang berbentuk pita-pita berukuran nano dengan panjang kurang dari 100 nm dan lebar 2-4 nm. Beberapa bakteri yang diketahui bisa memproduksi selulosa antara lain Acetobacter, Agrobacterium, Alcaligenes, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, dan Sarcina. Sintesis selulosa bacterial membentuk bundle mikrofibril yang sangat kristalin dengan elastisitas modulus sebesar 78 GPa sama seperti elastisitas modulus dari fiber glass 70 GPa. Selulosa bakteri memiliki kapasitas simpan air, derajat polimerisasi, dan struktur jaringan yang lebih baik daripada selulosa dari tanaman. Produksi nanofibril selulosa dari selulosa bakteri tidak memerlukan proses penghilangan hemiselulosa dan lignin seperti pada selulosa dari tanaman sehingga nano selulosa bakterial dapat menjadi salah satu bahan baku nano komposit yang potensial bagi pengembangan karet alam atau natural rubber (NR). Nano selulosa bakterial bisa menjadi bahan baku nano komposit yang sangat kuat, lebih kuat daripada nano selulosa yang berasal dari tanaman. Pengembangan karet alam atau natural rubber (NR) mengarah pada pengembangan karet untuk tujuan-tujuan khusus, salah satunya adalah elastomer thermoplastics (ETPs) yang merupakan kelompok material yang menggabungkan karakteristik karet dengan bahan termoplastik yang mudah diproses. Konsep penguatan bahan polimer, seperti NR, dengan nano-filler selulosa melalui mekanisme ikatan karet-bahan pengisi akibat peningkatan interaksi karet-bahan pengisi berukuran nano yang memiliki luas permukaan yang besar. Selulosa bakterial seperti Acetobacter xylinum yang ditumbuhkan dalam medium lateks karet alam, akan mengakibatkan partikel latek yang berukuran 5 nm terperangkap pada matrik selulosa ataupun sebaliknya partikel selulosa bakterial yang terperangkap pada matrik karet alam. Manfaat dari adanya mekanisme ikatan in vivo selulosa bakterial dan matrik karet alam adalah dalam rangka mengembangkan industri karet pada sintesis paduan nano-komposit karet dengan selulosa bakterial guna meningkatkan diversifikasi produk pada komoditas karet alam. Produk yang dihasilkan dapat berupa termoplastik elastomer (karet alam termoplastik) yang memiliki prospek untuk digunakan pada komponen otomotif dan produk-produk khusus lainnya.<br />Kata kunci : Bakteri selulosa, Acetobacter xylinum, elastomer thermoplastics (ETPs), lateks<br /><br />ABSTRACT<br />In-Vivo Potency of Bacterial Cellulose As Nano-Filler Elastomer Thermoplastics Rubber (ETPS)</p><p>Microbial cellulose is one of the biopolymer in the form of nano-sized ribbons with a length of less than 100 nm and a width of 2-4 nm. Some bacteria are known to produce cellulose namely Acetobacter, Agrobacterium, Alcaligenes, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, and Sarcina. Synthesis of bacterial cellulose forming microfibril bundle highly crystalline with elasticity modulus of 78 GPa as of 70 GPa fiber glass. Microbial cellulose has water storage capacity, degree of polymerization, and the network structure is better than cellulose from plants. Nanofibril cellulose production of bacterial cellulose does not require the removal of hemicellulose 104 Volume 14 Nomor 2, Des 2015 : 103 - 112 and lignin as of plants so that the nano bacterial cellulose is a potential raw materials of nano composites in developing natural rubber (NR). Nano bacterial cellulose is potentially a strong raw material for nano composites, stronger than nano cellulose from plants. Development of natural rubber or natural rubber (NR) led to the development of rubber for specific purposes, one of which is elastomeric thermoplastics (ETPs), a group combining the characteristics of rubber material with thermoplastic material that is easily processed. Strengthening The concept to improve the strength of polymer materials, such as NA, with nano-filler bonding cellulose through the mechanism of rubber-filler-rubber is due to an increased interaction of nano-sized filler that has a large surface area. Bacterial cellulose such as Acetobacter xylinum grown in natural rubber latex medium, may result in 5 nm latex particle trapped in the cellulose matrix or vice versa, bacterial cellulose particles trapped in the matrix of natural rubber. Benefits of the bonding mechanism of in vivo bacterial cellulose and natural rubber matrix is develop rubber industry synthesizing nano-composite alloy rubber with bacterial cellulose for natural rubber diversification. The products resulted in the form of thermoplastic elastomer (natural rubber thermoplastic) is potentially to be used in automotive components and other specialty products.<br />Keywords: Bacterial cellulose, Acetobacter xylinum, elastomer thermoplastics (ETPs), latex</p>
Lignocellulosic carbohydrates, i.e. cellulose and hemicellulose, have abundant potential as feedstock for production of biofuels and chemicals. However, these carbohydrates are generally infiltrated by lignin. Breakdown of the lignin barrier will alter lignocelluloses structures and make the carbohydrates accessible for more efficient bioconversion. White-rot fungi produce ligninolytic enzymes (lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, and laccase) and efficiently mineralise lignin into CO2 and H2O. Biological pretreatment of lignocelluloses using white-rot fungi has been used for decades for ruminant feed, enzymatic hydrolysis, and biopulping. Application of white-rot fungi capabilities can offer environmentally friendly processes for utilising lignocelluloses over physical or chemical pretreatment. This paper reviews white-rot fungi, ligninolytic enzymes, the effect of biological pretreatment on biomass characteristics, and factors affecting biological pretreatment. Application of biological pretreatment for enzymatic hydrolysis, biofuels (bioethanol, biogas and pyrolysis), biopulping, biobleaching, animal feed, and enzymes production are also discussed.
Indonesia dominates about 76% of nutmeg production and export in the world, where around 28.26% is produced in North Moluccas and 24.25% of its from North Halmahera. The objectives of this study were to reduce the biotic stress, increase the yield and improve the quality of the nutmeg produced by Tarakani Farmer Group in Galela District. (1) the Morphology of dry fruit rot disease in each stratum and (2) nutmeg cultivation system collected through interviews; and (3) climatic data, including temperature, and rainfall obtained from the Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysics Agency of Galela District. This study was conducted at west Galela District and Tarakani Farmer Group. The farmers implemented the sanitation techniques of the crops; i.e.: pruning, collection and pile up/bury of the dropped fruits and fumigation by burning some leaves of local trees and biotic stress be controlled. During one year a grade A of nutmeg increased from 5.7 tons to 37.6 tons or increased from 17.6% to 38.2%. Nutmeg grade C reduced from 40% to 25%%. This effort will still be forwarded by utilizing biological agents to reduce biotic stress, such as Trichoderma spp. to control fungal pathogens and Bacillus thurigiensis to pest control.
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