This study investigated the effect of acculturation on Halstead-Reitan neuropsychological test performances on nonimpaired Hispanics. The sample consisted of three groups of 50 subjects, representing distinct levels of acculturation: (a) Mexican-American, (b) Anglo-American, and (c) Mexican. A significant effect ( p > .05) for acculturation was found on several measures, including the Tactual Performance Test (TPT; Dominant, Nondominant, and Total), the Seashore Rhythm Test, and the Halstead Category Test. Measures not affected by acculturation were TPT Localization and Memory, Finger Tapping, and the Trail Making Test. Recommendations for further research and clinical implications of findings are discussed.

Camera trap technology has galvanized the study of predator–prey ecology in wild animal communities by expanding the scale and diversity of predator–prey interactions that can be analysed. While observational data from systematic camera arrays have informed inferences on the spatiotemporal outcomes of predator–prey interactions, the capacity for observational studies to identify mechanistic drivers of species interactions is limited. Experimental study designs that utilize camera traps uniquely allow for testing hypothesized mechanisms that drive predator and prey behaviour, incorporating environmental realism not possible in the laboratory while benefiting from the distinct capacity of camera traps to generate large datasets from multiple species with minimal observer interference. However, such pairings of camera traps with experimental methods remain underutilized. We review recent advances in the experimental application of camera traps to investigate fundamental mechanisms underlying predator–prey ecology and present a conceptual guide for designing experimental camera trap studies. Only 9% of camera trap studies on predator–prey ecology in our review use experimental methods, but the application of experimental approaches is increasing. To illustrate the utility of camera trap‐based experiments using a case study, we propose a study design that integrates observational and experimental techniques to test a perennial question in predator–prey ecology: how prey balance foraging and safety, as formalized by the risk allocation hypothesis. We discuss applications of camera trap‐based experiments to evaluate the diversity of anthropogenic influences on wildlife communities globally. Finally, we review challenges to conducting experimental camera trap studies. Experimental camera trap studies have already begun to play an important role in understanding the predator–prey ecology of free‐living animals, and such methods will become increasingly critical to quantifying drivers of community interactions in a rapidly changing world. We recommend increased application of experimental methods in the study of predator and prey responses to humans, synanthropic and invasive species, and other anthropogenic disturbances.

20Most studies and reviews on endozoochorous seed dispersal by ungulates overlook that ruminants spit 21 viable seeds from the cud, i.e. after they were ingested and carried out inside the rumen. To assess the 22 importance of this modality of endozoochory, we performed feeding trials with three captive red deer 23 (Cervus elaphus) and four plant species differing in fruit and seed traits. Our deer both regurgitated from 24 the rumen and ejected, and also defecated, seeds of the four species, at a ratio of about 6:10. If this ratio is 25 representative, about 37% of the released seeds would be spat and consequently ignored by studies 26 considering only seeds contained in feces. 27 28 29 dispersal 30 3 Wild ungulates have ecological influence nearly on every biome except the Antarctica. Their potential to 31 impact on the structure and functioning of ecosystems is thus remarkable. For instance, ungulates 32 condition the diversity and dynamics of plant communities (e.g. Hegland and Rydgren 2016), either 33 affecting directly plant demography through grazing, browsing and seed dispersal, or indirectly by 34 modifying the plant environment, such as edaphic conditions, nutrient flows and water cycle (Hobbs 35 1996). Because of this, understanding plant-ungulate interactions has been long an important challenge 36 for ecology and conservation (Danell et al. 2006). Traditionally, the antagonistic component of ungulate 37 herbivory (predation of seeds and adult plants) has received more attention than its mutualistic one (seed 38 dispersal). Interestingly, however, a number of investigations have documented the pervasive beneficial 39 effects of seed dispersal by ungulates on plant population dynamics and community assemblage (e.g.40 Malo and Suárez 1995; Boulanger et al. 2011), which could even compensate the negative effect of 41 herbivory (Bodmer and Ward 2006; but see Lecompte et al. 2016). 42 A large proportion of wild ungulates are ruminants, i.e. members of the order Artiodactyla which have a 43 rumen and employ foregut fermentation to digest food. At present, about 200 species of wild ruminants 44 do exist, distributed almost worldwide and living across many habitats and climates (Hackmann and 45 Spain 2010). Besides, in areas of temperate Eurasia and North America the populations of wild ruminants 46 (e.g. deer, wild goats) are increasing because of habitat changes and under-harvesting, exacerbating their 47 93Deer harvested most offered fruits and seeds (on average 84.5%; n = 1200; Tab. 1). From the harvested 94 seeds (n = 1014), 79.9% were ingested and 20.1% released during mastication before ingestion. Larger 95 seeds (those from dwarf palms) and seeds contained in multi-seeded pods (carob) were more frequently 96 dropped during mastication (about 40-30%), while smaller ones (those from hawthorn) were rarely 97 ejected (1%; Table 1). From the ingested seeds (n = 810), 77.9% disappeared (i.e. were completely 98 digested or missed), 13.8% were defecated, and 8.3% were spat from the cud (Table 1). Most spat se...

Given their strong masticatory system and the powerful microbial digestion inside their complex guts, mammalian ruminants have been frequently considered seed predators rather than seed dispersers. A number of studies, however, have observed that ruminants are able to transport many viable seeds long distances, either attached to the hair or hooves (i.e., epizoochory) or inside their body after ingesting them (i.e., endozoochory). However, very few studies have investigated a modality of endozoochory exclusive to ruminants: the spitting of usually large-sized seeds while chewing the cud. A systematic review of the published information about this type of endozoochory shows a marked scarcity of studies. Nonetheless, at least 48 plant species belonging to 21 families are dispersed by ruminants in this manner. Most of these plants are shrubs and trees, have fleshy or dry fruits with large-sized seeds, and are seldom dispersed via defecation. Many cases have been observed in tropical areas, where more frugivorous ruminant species occur, but other records are from temperate and dry areas, covering thus all continents except Antarctica. Twenty-one species of ruminants from 18 genera have been reported as endozoochore spitters. They involve domestic and wild species belonging to the families Tragulidae, Cervidae, and Bovidae. This suggests that almost any ruminant species could potentially eat fruits and regurgitate large hard seeds during rumination. Likely, this seed dispersal mechanism has been neglected due to the difficulty of observing rumination behavior and locating spat seeds. Further research on the potential of wild and domestic ruminant species as long-distance seed dispersers through spitting seeds from the cud appears particularly important given their increasing pervasiveness and abundance worldwide.

Foxes and cats are the most abundant medium‐sized urban carnivores. To date, however, there has been a lack of effort to synthesize data on the spatial and trophic resources used by these two carnivores, despite the importance of this information for assessing their similarity and roles in urban food webs. In this paper, we first synthesize all available information on the trophic patterns and home‐range size of these two predators based on a total of 91 studies. Second, we conduct statistical analyses to test the influence of environmental and biological variables such as regional differences, habitat characteristics, age, and sexual status on their home‐range size and diet patterns within urban habitats, and then evaluate the methods used to investigate these components. Our findings highlight the lack of studies that simultaneously monitor the diet and home‐range size of both predators within urban habitats. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to compare fox and cat home‐range size and diet. Foxes exhibited larger ranges than cats, while intact cats showed larger home ranges than desexed cats. Diet diversity obtained for both predators confirmed their trophic plasticity within urban habitats. Both predators consumed fewer mammals and invertebrates in highly disturbed habitats compared to medium ones. We also found that the procedure of data acquisition significantly influenced fox and cat home‐range sizes. In terms of diet, the type of recovered samples had a significant effect on the diet composition of both predators. To improve our understanding of the relative impact of these two urban carnivores on urban wildlife, we recommend simultaneously studying both species in future studies. Moreover, methodological standards for both diet and home‐range size studies are needed to allow comparisons.

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Figure 2. In some arid habitats, such as argan forests, most green vegetation is on the tops of trees and goats climb there to feed.

1. Understanding variation in the diet of widely distributed species can help us to predict how they respond to future environmental and anthropogenic changes. 2. We studied the diet of the red fox Vulpes vulpes, one of the world's most widely distributed carnivores. We compiled dietary data from 217 studies at 276 locations in five continents to assess how fox diet composition varied according to geographic location, climate, anthropogenic impact, and sampling method. 3. The diet of foxes showed substantial variation throughout the species' range, but with a general trend for small mammals and invertebrates to be the most frequently occurring dietary items. 4. The incidence of small and large mammals and birds in fox diets was greater away from the equator. The incidence of invertebrates and fruits increased with mean elevation, while the occurrence of medium-sized mammals and birds decreased. 5. Fox diet differed according to climatic and anthropogenic variables. Diet richness decreased with increasing temperature and precipitation. The incidence of small and large mammals decreased with increasing temperature. The incidence of birds and invertebrates decreased with increasing mean annual precipitation. Higher Human Footprint Index was associated with a lower incidence of large mammals and a higher incidence of birds and fruit in fox diet. 6. Sampling method influenced fox diet estimation: estimated percentage of small and medium-sized mammals and fruit was lower in studies based on stomach contents, while large mammals were more likely to be recorded in studies of stomach contents than in studies of scats. 7. Our study confirms the flexible and opportunistic dietary behaviour of foxes at the global scale. This behavioural trait allows them to thrive in a range of climatic conditions, and in areas with different degrees of human-induced habitat change. This knowledge can help us to place the results of local-scale fox diet studies into a broader context and to predict how foxes will respond to future environmental changes.