We examined the relative roles of dominance in agonistic interactions and energetic constraints related to body size in determining local abundances of coyotes (Canis latrans, 8-20 kg), gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus, 3-5 kg) and bobcats (Felis rufus, 5-15 kg) at three study sites (hereafter referred to as NP, CP, and SP) in the Santa Monica Mountains of California. We hypothesized that the largest and behaviorally dominant species, the coyote, would exploit a wider range of resources (i.e., a higher number of habitat and/or food types) and, consequently, would occur in higher density than the other two carnivores. We evaluated our hypotheses by quantifying their diets, food overlap, habitat-specific abundances, as well as their overall relative abundance at the three study sites. We identified behavioral dominance of coyotes over foxes and bobcats in Santa Monica because 7 of 12 recorded gray fox deaths and 2 of 5 recorded bobcat deaths were due to coyote predation, and no coyotes died as a result of their interactions with bobcats or foxes. Coyotes and bobcats were present in a variety of habitats types (8 out of 9), including both open and brushy habitats, whereas gray foxes were chiefly restricted to brushy habitats. There was a negative relationship between the abundances of coyotes and gray foxes (P=0.020) across habitats, suggesting that foxes avoided habitats of high coyote predation risk. Coyote abundance was low in NP, high in CP, and intermediate in SP. Bobcat abundance changed little across study sites, and gray foxes were very abundant in NP, absent in CP, and scarce in SP; this suggests a negative relationship between coyote and fox abundances across study sites, as well. Bobcats were solely carnivorous, relying on small mammals (lagomorphs and rodents) throughout the year and at all three sites. Coyotes and gray foxes also relied on small mammals year-round at all sites, though they also ate significant amounts of fruit. Though there were strong overall interspecific differences in food habits of carnivores (P<0.0001), average seasonal food overlaps were high due to the importance of small mammals in all carnivore diets [bobcat-gray fox: 0.79±0.09 (SD), n=4; bobcat-coyote: 0.69±0.16, n=6; coyote-gray fox: 0.52±0.05, n=4]. As hypothesized, coyotes used more food types and more habitat types than did bobcats and gray foxes and, overall, coyotes were the most abundant of the three species and ranged more widely than did gray foxes. We propose that coyotes limit the number and distribution of gray foxes in Santa Monica Mountains, and that those two carnivores exemplified a case in which the relationship between their body size and local abundance is governed by competitive dominance of the largest species rather than by energetic equivalences. However, in the case of the intermediate-sized bobcat no such a pattern emerged, likely due to rarity or inconsistency of agonistic interactions and/or behavioral avoidance of encounters by subordinate species.

Previous studies carried out in the DonÄ ana National Park reported that red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were killed by Iberian lynxes (Lynx pardinus), whereas similar-sized Eurasian badgers (Meles meles) were not. Therefore, we predicted that fox would avoid lynx predation risk by niche segregation whereas we did not expect such a segregation between badger and lynx. As an approach for evaluating our predictions, we compared their diet, activity patterns, and habitat use in an area of DonÄ ana where the three carnivores are sympatric. Lynxes preyed almost uniquely on European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), and though badgers and foxes were omnivorous, rabbits also were a major prey, resulting in high overlaps throughout the year. However, badgers preyed largely on small rabbits, whereas lynxes and foxes preyed mainly on medium-sized rabbits. There were also interspeci®c di erences in activity patterns. Maximum levels of activity among lynxes were during sunrise and dusk (49±67%). Foxes were most active during dusk and night (34±67%), and badgers were mainly nocturnal (53±87%). Though there were seasonal di erences in the amount of activity of each species, speci®c activity patterns changed little throughout the year. There was a strong di erence in annual habitat use by the three species (P < 0.0001). Lynxes used mainly the Mediterranean scrubland during both the active (P MAX ) and the resting (P MIN ) periods. During P MIN , foxes used the Mediterranean scrubland intensively (40% of locations on average), but during P MAX , they used the pastureland much more intensively despite this habitat being poorer in their main prey (rabbits). As a consequence, foxes and lynxes exhibited segregation in their habitat use during the active period. Badgers also used the Mediterranean scrubland intensively, especially during P MIN . There were no seasonal di erences in habitat use for lynx and fox, but there was for badgers (P < 0.015). Within the study area, the three species selected habitat suggesting they were sensitive to factors such as vegetation and prey abundance. However, in general, carnivore habitat use did not correlate with rabbit abundance. We propose that foxes avoided lynxes by using, during activity, habitats not frequented by lynxes, and that a low predation risk associated with the distinctive foraging mode of badgers may facilitate its coexistence with other carnivores.

The media and scientific literature are increasingly reporting an escalation of large carnivore attacks on humans in North America and Europe. Although rare compared to human fatalities by other wildlife, the media often overplay large carnivore attacks on humans, causing increased fear and negative attitudes towards coexisting with and conserving these species. Although large carnivore populations are generally increasing in developed countries, increased numbers are not solely responsible for the observed rise in the number of attacks by large carnivores. Here we show that an increasing number of people are involved in outdoor activities and, when doing so, some people engage in risk-enhancing behaviour that can increase the probability of a risky encounter and a potential attack. About half of the well-documented reported attacks have involved risk-enhancing human behaviours, the most common of which is leaving children unattended. Our study provides unique insight into the causes, and as a result the prevention, of large carnivore attacks on people. Prevention and information that can encourage appropriate human behaviour when sharing the landscape with large carnivores are of paramount importance to reduce both potentially fatal human-carnivore encounters and their consequences to large carnivores.

To evaluate whether the abundance of eoyotes Canis latrans was influenced by the availability of anthropogenic foods in a humanized landscape. we compared three neighboring areas (hereafter referred to as NA. CA. and SA) under contrasting human pressures within the Santa Monica Mountains of California. USA. We quantified the use of anthropegenic foods by coyotes and assessed local densities within these three regions. Overall. 76 coyote feces were analyzed: identified food items were categorized into 11 food lypes (7 native and 4 anthropogenic). Though small mammals (lagomorphs and rodents) were the main prey of coyotes in all areas and seasons, log‐linear modeling of multiway conlingency tables indicates that consumption of anthropogenic foods by coyotes varied significantly throughout study areas. Thus, in the most humanized area (CA: 24% of this region is residential habitat), anthropogenic foods (trash, livestock, domestic fruit) comprised seasonally between 14 and 25% of total items in coyote diets, whereas in the least humanized area (NA: 2% residential) anthropogenic foods only comprised seasonally between 0 and 3% of items. Coyote density, estimated by foot‐hold trapping surveys and by genotyping feces. was also highly variable between areas. The heavily human‐impacted CA area had the highest coyote density (2.4‐3.0 ind. Km2‐). whereas coyote density was significantly lower (0.3‐0.4 ind. km 2‐) in the least humanized area (NA). In the third region (SA: 10% residential), with an intermediate level of human pressure, both importance of anthropogenic foods in coyote diet (4 6%) and coyote density (1.6‐2.0 ind. km 2) were intermediate compared to the other regions. Our data suggest that subsidization by anthropogenic foods augments coyote densities and alters their diets in the Santa Monica Mountains. California. We include data from literature to show that anthropogenic foods are used by omnivorous mammals throughout the world. Surprisingly, however, the potential effects of allochthonous inputs on such species are not well‐understood. Thus. further research on this phenomenon in humanized landscapes is needed.

Applied conservation biology must provide solutions for the conservation of species in modern landscapes, where prime habitats are being continuously fragmented and altered and animals are restricted to small, nonviable populations. We studied habitat selection in a fragmented population of endangered Iberian lynx (  Lynx pardinus) by examining 14 years of radiotracking data obtained from lynx trapped in two different source areas. Habitat selection was studied independently for predispersal lynx in the source areas, for dispersing individuals through the region, and for postdispersing animals, most of which settled far from their point of origin. A multivariate analysis of variance showed that habitat use differed significantly among these phases and between area of origin, but not between sexes. The habitat type most used, and best represented within home ranges, was the mediterranean scrubland. Pine plantations were also important during and after dispersal. The rest of the habitats were either avoided (open habitats) or used according to availability ( pine and eucalyptus plantations) by dispersing lynx. Differences due to lynx origin were detected only during predispersal and dispersal and were observed because animals from each area had different habitat availability. Lynx with established territories did not use areas at random. They occupied patches of mediterranean scrubland more often than would be expected from scrubland availability during predispersal; the rest of the habitats were included within home ranges less than would be expected from their availability in the landscape. Results indicate that dispersing animals may use habitats of lower quality than habitats used by resident individuals, which suggests that conservation strategies applied across regions might be a viable objective.

No abstract

Seed dispersal by animals is a key interaction, with effects on the population ecology and evolution of many plant lineages. Despite the fact that infrequent seed dispersers can potentially provide important services to plant populations, little attention has been paid so far to scarce mutualists. We assessed different aspects of quantity and quality of seed dispersal from fruit removal to seed germination in the Iberian pear, Pyrus bourgaeana, finding that fruit consumers markedly differed in the nature of their interaction with the tree. Whereas the abundant rodents, rabbits, and deer damaged all seeds eaten, the uncommon carnivores badger and fox and the abundant boars dispersed a large fraction of ingested seeds as viable propagules, acting as legitimate seed dispersers. Despite low rates of visitation by badgers to fruiting trees, they transported more viable seeds than the abundant boars, due to better seed treatment and a higher feeding rate on pears. Seed dispersal by all 3 legitimate dispersers, especially the badger, enhanced post-dispersal P. bourgaeana seed survival, supporting the "escape" predation hypothesis. Pyrus bourgaeana showed relatively high frequencies of visits by a myriad of frugivores; however, it relied on the dispersal service provided by an infrequent carnivore, the badger, rather than on those provided by the abundant mammalian herbivores. Therefore, under some circumstances, uncommon animal counterparts play major roles in their mutualistic interactions with flowering plants.Résumé : La dispersion des graines par les animaux est une interaction clé ayant des effets sur l'écologie des populations et l'évolution de plusieurs lignées de plantes. Malgré le fait que des agents de dispersion des graines peu fréquents ont le potentiel de fournir des services importants aux populations végétales, les mutualismes rares ont reçu peu d'attention jusqu'à maintenant. Nous avons évalué les différents aspects de la quantité et de la qualité de la dispersion des graines, de la cueillette du fruit jusqu'à la germination de la graine chez le poirier Pyrus bourgaeana, et constaté que les consommateurs de fruits différaient grandement entre eux dans la nature de leur interaction avec l'arbre. Alors que les abondants rongeurs, lapins et cerfs endommageaient toutes les graines ingérées, les carnivores rares (le blaireau et le renard) et les abondants sangliers dispersaient une grande partie des graines ingérées en tant que propagules viables, agissant ainsi comme agents légitimes de dispersion des graines. Malgré les faibles taux de visite aux arbres fruitiers par des blaireaux, ceux-ci ont transporté plus de graines viables que les abondants sangliers en raison d'un meilleur traitement des graines et d'une plus grande consommation de poires. La dispersion des graines par les 3 agents légitimes de dispersion, particulièrement le blaireau, a augmenté la survie postdispersion des graines de P. bourgaeana, supportant l'hypothèse « d'évasion » de la prédation. Pyrus bourgaeana a été visité relativement fréqu...

The degree to which plant individuals are aggregated or dispersed co‐determines how a species uses resources, how it is used as a resource, and how it reproduces. Quantifying such spatial patterns, however, presents several methodological issues that can be overcome by using spatial point pattern analyses (SPPA). We used SPPA to assess the distribution of P. bourgaeana adult trees and their seeds (within fecal samples) dispersed by three mammals (badger, fox, and wild boar) within a 72‐ha plot across a range of spatial scales. Pyrus bourgaeana trees in our study plot (n=75) were clearly aggregated with a critical spatial scale of ca 25 m, and approximately nine randomly distributed tree clusters were identified. As expected from their marking behaviors, the spatial patterns of fecal deposition varied widely among mammal species. Whereas badger feces and dispersed seeds were clearly clustered at small spatial scales (<10 m), boar and fox feces were relatively scattered across the plot. A toroidal shift null model testing for independence indicated that boars tended to deliver seeds to the vicinity of adult trees and thus could contribute to the maintenance and enlargement of existing tree clusters. Badgers delivered feces and seeds in a highly clumped pattern but unlike boars, away from P. bourgaeana neighborhoods; thus, they are more likely to create new tree clusters than boars. The strong tree aggregation is likely to be the result of one or several non‐exclusive processes, such as the spatial patterning of seed delivery by dispersers and seedling establishment beneath mother trees. In turn, the distinctive distribution of P. bourgaeana in Doñana appeared to interact with the foraging behavior of its mammalian seed dispersers, leading to neighbourhood‐specific dispersal patterns and fruit‐removal rates. Our study exemplifies how a detailed description of patterns generates testable hypotheses concerning the ecology of zoochorous. Pyrus bourgaeana dispersers were unique and complementary in their spatial patterning of seed delivery, which likely confers resilience to their overall service and suggests lack of redundancy and expendability of any one species.