A recent study demonstrated that heat stress induces mitochondrial biogenesis in C2C12 myotubes, thereby implying that heat stress may be an effective treatment to enhance endurance training-induced mitochondrial adaptations in skeletal muscle. However, whether heat stress actually induces mitochondrial adaptations in skeletal muscle in vivo is unclear. In the present study, we report the novel findings that 1) whole body heat stress produced by exposure of ICR mice to a hot environment (40°C, 30 min/day, 5 days/wk, 3 wk) induced mitochondrial adaptations such as increased mitochondrial enzyme activity (citrate synthase and 3-hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase) and respiratory chain protein content (complexes I-V) in skeletal muscle in vivo and 2) postexercise whole body heat stress additively enhanced endurance training-induced mitochondrial adaptations (treadmill running, 25 m/min, 30 min/day, 5 days/wk, 3 wk). Moreover, to determine the candidate mechanisms underlying mitochondrial adaptations, we investigated the acute effects of postexercise whole body heat stress on the phosphorylation status of cellular signaling cascades that subsequently induce mitochondrial gene transcription. We found that whole body heat stress boosted the endurance exercise-induced phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, increased the phosphorylation status of p70S6K, a biomarker of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 activity, and unexpectedly dephosphorylated AMP-activated protein kinase and its downstream target acetyl-CoA carboxylase in skeletal muscle. Our present observations suggest that heat stress can act as an effective postexercise treatment. Heat stress treatment appeared to be clinically beneficial for people who have difficulty participating in sufficient exercise training, such as the elderly, injured athletes, and patients.

Helicobacter suis, a bacterial species naturally hosted by pigs, can colonize the human stomach in the context of gastric diseases such as gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma. Because H. suis has been successfully isolated from pigs, but not from humans, evidence linking human H. suis infection to gastric diseases has remained incomplete. In this study, we successfully in vitro cultured H. suis directly from human stomachs. Unlike Helicobacter pylori, the viability of H. suis decreases significantly on neutral pH; therefore, we achieved this using a low-pH medium for transport of gastric biopsies. Ultimately, we isolated H. suis from three patients with gastric diseases, including gastric MALT lymphoma. Successful eradication of H. suis yielded significant improvements in endoscopic and histopathological findings. Oral infection of mice with H. suis clinical isolates elicited gastric and systemic inflammatory responses; in addition, progression of gastric mucosal metaplasia was observed 4 mo postinfection. Because H. suis could be isolated from the stomachs of infected mice, our findings satisfied Koch’s postulates. Although further prospective clinical studies are needed, H. suis, like H. pylori, is likely a gastric pathogen in humans. Furthermore, comparative genomic analysis of H. suis using complete genomes of clinical isolates revealed that the genome of each H. suis isolate contained highly plastic genomic regions encoding putative strain-specific virulence factors, including type IV secretion system–associated genes, and that H. suis isolates from humans and pigs were genetically very similar, suggesting possible pig-to-human transmission.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of training and detraining on the monocarboxylate transporter (MCT) 1 and MCT4 levels in the gluteus medius muscle of Thoroughbred horses. Twelve Thoroughbred horses were used for the analysis. For 18 weeks, all the horses underwent high-intensity training (HIT), with running at 90-110% maximal oxygen consumption (V O 2 max ) for 3 min, 5 days week −1 . Thereafter, the horses either underwent detraining for 6 weeks by either 3 min of moderate-intensity training (MIT) at 70%V O 2 max , 5 days week −1 (HIT-MIT group) or stall rest (HIT-SR group). The horses underwent an incremental exercise test,V O 2 max was measured and resting muscle samples were obtained from the middle gluteus muscle at 0, 18 and 24 weeks. The content of MCT1 and MCT4 proteins increased after 18 weeks of HIT. At the end of this period, an increase was noted in the citrate synthase activity, while phosphofructokinase activity remained unchanged. After 6 weeks of detraining, all these indexes returned to the pretraining levels in the HIT-SR group. However, in the HIT-MIT group, the increase in the MCT1 protein content and citrate synthase activity was maintained after 6 weeks of MIT, while the MCT4 protein content decreased to the pretraining value. These results suggest that the content of MCT1 and MCT4 proteins increases after HIT in Thoroughbred horses. In addition, the increase in the MCT1 protein content and oxidative capacity induced by HIT can be maintained by MIT of 70%V O 2 max , but the increase in the MCT4 protein content cannot be maintained by MIT.

Recent studies suggested that lactate accumulation can be a signal for mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle. We investigated whether reductions in lactate concentrations in response to dichloroacetate (DCA), an activator of pyruvate dehydrogenase, attenuate mitochondrial adaptations after exercise training in mice. We first confirmed that DCA administration (200 mg/kg BW by i.p. injection) 10 min before exercise decreased muscle and blood lactate concentrations after high-intensity interval exercise (10 bouts of 1 min treadmill running at 40 m/min with a 1 min rest). At the same time, exercise-induced signal cascades did not change by pre-exercise DCA administration. These results suggested that DCA administration affected only lactate concentrations after exercise. We next examined the effects of acute DCA administration on mRNA expressions involved with mitochondrial biogenesis after same high-intensity interval exercise and the effects of chronic DCA administration on mitochondrial adaptations after high-intensity interval training (increasing intensity from 38 to 43 m/min by the end of training period). Acute DCA administration did not change most of the exercise-induced mRNA upregulation. These data suggest that lactate reductions by DCA administration did not affect transcriptional activation after high-intensity interval exercise. However, chronic DCA administration attenuated, in part, mitochondrial adaptations such as training-induced increasing rates of citrate synthase (P = 0.06), β-hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase activity (P < 0.05), cytochrome c oxidase IV (P < 0.05) and a fatty acid transporter, fatty acid translocase/CD36 (P < 0.05), proteins after exercise training. These results suggest that lactate accumulation during high-intensity interval exercise may be associated with mitochondrial adaptations after chronic exercise training.

In NMO, increased CSF MMP-2, likely induced by interleukin-6 signaling, may disrupt the BBB and enable serum anti-AQP-4 antibodies migration into the central nervous system (CNS).

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