Recent studies have shown that the dendrites of several neurons are not simple translators but are crucial facilitators of excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) propagation and summation of synaptic inputs to compensate for inherent voltage attenuation. Granule cells (GCs)are located at the gateway for valuable information arriving at the hippocampus from the entorhinal cortex. However, the underlying mechanisms of information integration along the dendrites of GCs in the hippocampus are still unclear. In this study, we investigated the input integration around dendritic branches of GCs in the rat hippocampus. We applied differential spatiotemporal stimulations to the dendrites using a high-speed glutamate-uncaging laser. Our results showed that when two sites close to and equidistant from a branching point were simultaneously stimulated, a nonlinear summation of EPSPs was observed at the soma. In addition, nonlinear summation (facilitation) depended on the stimulus location and was significantly blocked by the application of a voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channel antagonist. These findings suggest that the nonlinear summation of EPSPs around the dendritic branches of hippocampal GCs is a result of voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channel activation and may play a crucial role in the integration of input information.

The hippocampus organizes sequential memory composed of non-spatial information (such as objects and odors) and spatial information (places). The dentate gyrus (DG) in the hippocampus receives two types of information from the lateral and medial entorhinal cortices. Non-spatial and spatial information is delivered respectively to distal and medial dendrites (MDs) of granule cells (GCs) within the molecular layer in the DG. To investigate the role of the association of those two inputs, we measured the response characteristics of distal and MDs of a GC in a rat hippocampal slice and developed a multi-compartment GC model with dynamic synapses; this model reproduces the response characteristics of the dendrites. Upon applying random inputs or input sequences generated by a Markov process to the computational model, it was found that a high-frequency random pulse input to distal dendrites (DDs) and, separately, regular burst inputs to MDs were effective for inducing GC activation. Furthermore, when the random and theta burst inputs were simultaneously applied to the respective dendrites, the pattern discrimination for theta burst input to MDs that caused slight GC activation was enhanced in the presence of random input to DDs. These results suggest that the temporal pattern discrimination of spatial information is originally involved in a synaptic characteristic in GCs and is enhanced by non-spatial information input to DDs. Consequently, the co-activation of two separate inputs may play a crucial role in the information processing on dendrites of GCs by usefully combing each temporal sequence.

Japanese polite language (teineigo) varies with the speaker-addressee relationship as well as social norms. Descriptive studies have found that young Japanese children use polite-speech early in development. This claim was experimentally tested in 3- to 6-year-old Japanese children and correct use of polite verb forms was found even in the youngest children. The early acquisition of these verb forms is surprising, because there is a Japanese social norm that parental speech to children is mostly not polite, so it is not clear how children acquire the knowledge of how to use polite forms. To examine this, a large scale corpus analysis of polite language was performed using a probabilistic measure of the intended addressee. We confirmed that parental speech is mostly not polite, but parents also produced a substantial amount of polite language that varied appropriately with addressees and this can help to explain the early use of polite speech in Japanese children under experimental conditions.

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