Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder, starting in early childhood and persisting into adulthood in the majority of cases. Family and twin studies have demonstrated the importance of genetic factors and candidate gene association studies have identified several loci that exert small but significant effects on ADHD. To provide further clarification of reported associations and identify novel associated genes, we examined 1038 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) spanning 51 candidate genes involved in the regulation of neurotransmitter pathways, particularly dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin pathways, in addition to circadian rhythm genes. Analysis used within family tests of association in a sample of 776 DSM-IV ADHD combined type cases ascertained for the International Multi-centre ADHD Gene project. We found nominal significance with one or more SNPs in 18 genes, including the two most replicated findings in the literature: DRD4 and DAT1. Gene-wide tests, adjusted for the number of SNPs analysed in each gene, identified associations with TPH2, ARRB2, SYP, DAT1, ADRB2, HES1, MAOA and PNMT. Further studies will be needed to confirm or refute the observed associations and their generalisability to other samples. Molecular Psychiatry (2006) 11, 934-953.

Background-Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder is a very common and highly heritable child psychiatric disorder associated with dysfunctions in fronto-striatal networks that control attention and response organisation. Aim of this study was to investigate whether features of action monitoring related to dopaminergic functions represent endophenotypes which are brain functions on the pathway from genes and environmental risk factors to behaviour.

The data are inconsistent with models that consider RT variability as reflecting a stable cognitive deficit in ADHD, but instead emphasize the extent to which energetic or motivational factors can have a greater effect on RT performance in ADHD. The findings support the role of RT variability as an endophenotype mediating the link between genes and ADHD.

Children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) choose smaller sooner (SS) over larger later (LL) rewards more than controls. Here we assess the contributions of impulsive drive for immediate rewards (IDIR) and delay aversion (DAv) to this pattern. We also explore the characteristics of, and the degree of familiality in, ADHD SS responders. We had 360 ADHD probands; 349 siblings and 112 controls (aged between 6 to 17 years) chose between SS (1 point after 2 s) and LL reward (2 points after 30 s) outcomes on the Maudsley Index of Delay Aversion (Kuntsi, Oosterlaan, Stevenson, 2001): Under one condition SS choice led to less overall trial delay under another it did not. ADHD participants chose SS more than controls under both conditions. This effect was larger when SS choice reduced trial delay. ADHD SS responders were younger, had lower IQ, more conduct disorder and had siblings who were more likely to be SS responders themselves. The results support a dual component model in which both IDIR and DAv contribute to SS choice in ADHD. SS choice may be a marker of an ADHD motivational subtype. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved).

Context Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with widespread cognitive impairments, but it is not known whether the apparent multiple impairments share etiological roots, or whether separate etiological pathways exist. A better understanding of the etiological pathways is important for the development of targeted interventions and for identification of suitable intermediate phenotypes for molecular genetic investigations. Objective To determine, using a multivariate familial factor analysis approach, whether one or more familial factors underlie the slow and variable reaction times (RTs), impaired response inhibition and choice impulsivity that are associated with ADHD. Design An ADHD and control sibling-pair design. Setting Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. Participants The sample consisted of 1265 participants, aged 6 to 18 years: 464 probands with ADHD and 456 of their siblings (524 with ADHD combined subtype), and 345 control participants. Main Outcome Measures Performance on a four-choice RT task, a go/no-go inhibition task and a choice-delay task. Results The final model consisted of two familial factors. The larger factor, reflecting 85% of the familial variance of ADHD, captured 98-100% of the familial influences on mean RT and RT variability. The second smaller factor, reflecting 12.5% of the familial variance of ADHD, captured 62-82% of the familial influences on commission and omission errors on the go/no-go task. Choice impulsivity was excluded in the final model, due to poor fit. Conclusions The findings suggest the existence of two familial pathways to cognitive impairments in ADHD and indicate promising cognitive targets for future molecular genetic investigations. The familial distinction between the two cognitive impairments is consistent with recent theoretical models – a developmental model and an arousal-attention model – on two separable underlying processes in ADHD. Future research that tests the familial model within a developmental framework may inform developmentally-sensitive interventions.