A vital step in the development of an equal partnership for minorities in the academic, social, and economic life of the United States involves moving away from assumptions of the linear model of cultural acquisition. In this article we review the literature on the psychological impact of being bicultural. Assimilation, acculturation, alternation, multicultural, and fusion models that have been used to describe the psychological processes, social experiences, and individual challenges and obstacles of being bicultural are reviewed and summarized for their contributions and implications for investigations of the psychological impact of biculturalism. Emphasis is given to the alternation model, which posits that an individual is able to gain competence within 2 cultures without losing his or her cultural identity or having to choose one culture over the other. Finally, a hypothetical model outlining the dimensions of bicultural competence is presented.

This article presents the development and preliminary validation of the Cross-Cultural Counseling Inventory (CCCI), a measure based on the American Psychological Association Division 17 Educa-) tion and Training Committee's tridimensional characteristics of cross-cultural counseling competence-beliefs/attitudes, knowledge, and skills (Sue et al, 1982). Three studies investigated the instrument's content validity, interrater reliability, and factor structure. The first study established substantial agreement among judges when classifying items according to the tridimensional characteristics. In the second study, judges reached adequate levels of interrater reliability after viewing cross-cultural counseling vignettes. The third study found a 3-factor orthogonal solution of crosscultural counseling skill, sociopolitical awareness, and cultural sensitivity. The authors discuss the utility of the instrument in counseling supervision and research.

A meta-analysis of studies that assessed ethnic minorities' perceptions of and preferences for ethnically similar counselors and European American counselors showed that ethnic minorities tended to prefer ethnically similar counselors over European American counselors. However, the perceptions of and preferences for counselors were influenced by the cultural affiliation of the participants and the research methods used. More precise methods for determining the degree to which ethnic minorities' preferences for ethnically similar counselors is a function of inferences concerning attitudes, values, and skill needs to be developed.Clients entering a counseling relationship have to make numerous decisions (Cheatham & Patrick, 1987;Gratham & Gordon, 1986) and take into account various, sometimes competing, factors in the process. In the United States, if this person is not an European American, ethnic factors may have a significant affect on this decision-making process. There is evidence that African, Latin, Asian, and Native Americans are less likely than European Americans to seek counseling, stay in counseling, receive adequate counseling, or benefit from counseling (

No abstract

Coping with cultural diversity is one of the major challenges facing individuals who seek counseling services as well as those who provide those services. This article describes six strategies, (a) assimilation or monoculturation, (b) acculturation, (c) alternation, (d) integration, (e) separation, andf) fusion that individuals may use to cope with cultural diversity. The relationship between these strategies, an ecosystemic model of culture, and a social cognitive theory of behavior is presented. The article discusses how these strategies may affect the process and outcome of counseling as well as the implications these strategies have for research.