The ecosystem services approach has become prominent in conservation science and practice. There is an abundance of data, indicators, and models for assessing provisioning and regulating ecosystem services. However, the concept of ecosystem services has not been successful in capturing cultural ecosystem services in any detail. Research in the two fields "cultural landscape" and "ecosystem services" should be conducted jointly to enhance the understanding of cultural ecosystem services in socialecological systems and to develop methods of assessment. 269 The Difficulty of Assessing Cultural Ecosystem Services Within a few years, the concept of "ecosystem services" has shifted rapidly "from an academic backwater to the mainstream of conservation and environmental policy" (Redford and Adams 2009, p. 785). Ecosystem services comprise provisioning services (e. g., food, fresh water), regulating services (e.g., flood protection), cultural services (e. g., tourism, cultural heritage), and supporting services (e.g., nutrient cycles). By linking ecosystem functions with human livelihood quality, the concept aims to justify nature conservation and environmentally sensitive management (Ghazoul 2007). A peculiarity of cultural landscapes-landscapes that are deliberately managed by humans-is that greater value is not so much attributed to undisturbed, "intact" ecosystems. Rather, biodiversity and ecosystem services have been sustained through a long and complex history of settlement and land use (Antrop 1997, Jones-Walters 2008). Compared to more natural ecosystems, cultural landscapes stamped by agriculture and forestry have much greater potential to expand the supply of ecosystem services: Knowledge about biophysical input-output relationships in agricultural landscapes is available, precedents for economic incentives that can enhance the supply of ecosystem services exist, and past agricultural and forestry performance suggests that the supply of goods and services can respond strongly to attractive incentives (Swinton et al. 2006). Cultural ecosystem services, somewhat vaguely defined as "non material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spi ritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recrea->
