From 1950 to 1999 the majority of the world's highest quality wine-producing regions experienced growing season warming trends. Vintage quality ratings during this same time period increased significantly while year-to-year variation declined. While improved winemaking knowledge and husbandry practices contributed to the better vintages it was shown that climate had, and will likely always have, a significant role in quality variations. This study revealed that the impacts of climate change are not likely to be uniform across all varieties and regions. Currently, many European regions appear to be at or near their optimum growing season temperatures, while the relationships are less defined in the New World viticulture regions. For future climates, model output for global wine producing regions predicts an average warming of 2 • C in the next 50 yr. For regions producing highquality grapes at the margins of their climatic limits, these results suggest that future climate change will exceed a climatic threshold such that the ripening of balanced fruit required for existing varieties and wine styles will become progressively more difficult. In other regions, historical and predicted climate changes could push some regions into more optimal climatic regimes for the production of current varietals. In addition, the warmer conditions could lead to more poleward locations potentially becoming more conducive to grape growing and wine production.

Premium wine production is limited to regions climatically conducive to growing grapes with balanced composition and varietal typicity. Three central climatic conditions are required: (i) adequate heat accumulation; (ii) low risk of severe frost damage; and (iii) the absence of extreme heat. Although wine production is possible in an extensive climatic range, the highest-quality wines require a delicate balance among these three conditions. Although historical and projected average temperature changes are known to influence global wine quality, the potential future response of wineproducing regions to spatially heterogeneous changes in extreme events is largely unknown. Here, by using a high-resolution regional climate model forced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Emission Scenarios A2 greenhouse gas emission scenario, we estimate that potential premium winegrape production area in the conterminous United States could decline by up to 81% by the late 21st century. While increases in heat accumulation will shift wine production to warmer climate varieties and͞or lower-quality wines, and frost constraints will be reduced, increases in the frequency of extreme hot days (>35°C) in the growing season are projected to eliminate winegrape production in many areas of the United States. Furthermore, grape and wine production will likely be restricted to a narrow West Coast region and the Northwest and Northeast, areas currently facing challenges related to excess moisture. Our results not only imply large changes for the premium wine industry, but also highlight the importance of incorporating fine-scale processes and extreme events in climate-change impact studies.climate change ͉ enology ͉ grape ͉ viticulture ͉ winegrape A number of observations indicate that warming has occurred during the late 20th and early 21st centuries at the Earth's surface (1), in the troposphere (2-4), and in the oceans (5). The majority of this warming has likely been caused by anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (6), and if such emissions continue unabated, global mean temperatures are likely to rise by 2-6°C over the next century (1). This mean global warming will likely manifest itself over a range of spatial and temporal scales, altering mean seasonal climate (e.g., ref. 7), interannual climate variability (e.g., ref. 8), and the frequency and magnitude of extreme events (e.g., refs. 9-11).Such climatic changes could have a wide variety of important impacts on sectors such as human health (12), biological invasions (13), species extinctions (14), and water (15) and energy (16) resources. Because the quality and production of cultivated crops are directly influenced by local climate variables, agricultural systems may be particularly susceptible to climate change. For at least five reasons, the cultivation of grapes for the production of premium wine provides an optimal case for assessing potential impacts of climate change. First, premium wines are produced conterminously with human habitation an...

Human handedness, a marker for language lateralization in the brain, continues to attract great research interest. A widely reported but not universal finding is a greater male tendency toward left-handedness. Here the authors present a meta-analysis of k = 144 studies, totaling N = 1,787,629 participants, the results of which demonstrate that the sex difference is both significant and robust. The overall best estimate for the male to female odds ratio was 1.23 (95% confidence interval = 1.19, 1.27). The widespread observation of this sex difference is consistent with it being related to innate characteristics of sexual differentiation, and its observed magnitude places an important constraint on current theories of handedness. In addition, the size of the sex difference was significantly moderated by the way in which handedness was assessed (by writing hand or by other means), the location of testing, and the year of publication of the study, implicating additional influences on its development.

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A neglect of direct evidence from the person with dementia is identified, and possible ways of combating this are considered. Clinical implications are drawn with regard to supporting the carer, the person with dementia, and their relationship.

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It is a common assumption that memories consist of sets of interrelated features or attributes. Rigorous and direct investigation of the functional properties of these sets has been relatively neglected however. Two important questions are posed here. First, are the interrelationships of different components reflexive or are they asymmetric? Second, how do components interact when more than one is used as a cue for recall ?These questions were answered by examining memory for series of items whose objective components were statistically independent of one another. The items were color photographs which each depicted a particular object (e.g., a cup) of a particular color (e.g., yellow) in a particular location (e.g., the top left corner of the backdrop); the photograph also occurred in a particular sequential position of course (e.g., as the second photograph of a series). After a filled 25-sec delay, recall of each item was assessed using one, two, or three of these four components as cue for the remainder.A fragmentation hypothesis was suggested to account for the results concerning the visual attributes. This postulates that a memory trace corresponds to a fragment of a perceived situation. A fragment can be excited by the provision of a single constituent as cue: Recall is therefore reflexive, and the cuing of a memory by several of its constituents is no more effective than that by a single one. Multiple cuing will usually produce rather higher overall recall simply because there is an increased chance that at least one of the cue components is stored in the corresponding fragment. Upon rigorous testing it was found that the hypothesis provided an accurate representation of recall. Two other models, an "independent cue" hypothesis and a model based upon that of Anderson and Bower (1973), were significantly discrepant with the data.Sequential position did not conform to the fragmentation hypothesis, correct recall being more likely when sequential position was used as a cue for another component than when it was itself cued for. In the latter case the median recalled value of sequential position was related to the true value by a power function. An implication is that the lower level of recall usually occurring for items in the middle of a list is due to the increasing inaccuracy of the contextual component being used as the implicit cue.

When a person reports that a word is on the tip of his or her tongue, that person often recalls instead another word that is similar in sound to the target word. Two opposite roles have been suggested for these interlopers. An older view (Woodworth, 1929) holds that they are instrumental in the development of tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) states because they obstruct successful retrieval of intended targets. A more recent view (R. Brown & McNeill, 1966) holds, on the other hand, that interlopers tend to nullify TOT states by facilitating complete retrieval of the intended targets. A study is reported in which participants were explicitly presented with interloper words. The results provide two planks of support for Woodworth's hypothesis. First, more TOT states occurred when the interloper was similar in sound to the target than when it was not. Second, more TOT states occurred when the interloper was presented at the actual time of retrieval than when it was presented earlier. It appears that interlopers tend to induce TOT states by obstructing retrieval, rather than to nullify them by facilitating retrieval.