Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and surface-enhanced resonance Raman scattering (SERRS) can provide positive identification of an analyte or an analyte mixture with high sensitivity and selectivity. Better understanding of the theory and advances in the understanding of the practice have led to the development of practical applications in which the unique advantages of SERS/SERRS have been used to provide effective solutions to difficult analytical problems. This review presents a basic theory and illustrates the way in which SERS/SERRS has been developed for practical use.

c Nonculture-based tests are gaining popularity in the diagnosis of invasive fungal disease (IFD), but PCR is excluded from disease-defining criteria because of limited standardization and a lack of commercial assays. Commercial PCR assays may have a standardized methodology while providing quality assurance. The detection of PCR products by a surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) assay potentially provides superior analytical sensitivity and multiplexing capacity compared to that of realtime PCR. Using this approach, the RenDx Fungiplex assay was developed to detect Candida and Aspergillus. Analytical and clinical evaluations of the assay were undertaken using extraction methods according to European Aspergillus PCR Initiative (EAPCRI) recommendations. A total of 195 previously extracted samples (133 plasma, 49 serum, and 13 whole blood) from 112 patients (29 with proven/probable IFD) were tested. The 95% limit of detection of Candida and Aspergillus was 200 copies per reaction, with an overall reproducibility of 92.1% for detecting 20 input copies per PCR, and 89.8% for the nucleic acid extraction-PCR-SERS process for detecting fungal burdens of <20 genome equivalents per sample. A clinical evaluation showed that assay positivity significantly correlated with IFD (P < 0.0001). The sensitivity of the assay was 82.8% and was similar for both Candida (80.0%) and Aspergillus (85.7%). The specificity was 87.5% and was increased (97.5%) by using a multiple (>2 samples) PCR-positive threshold. In summary, the RenDx Fungiplex assay is a PCR-SERS assay for diagnosing IFD and demonstrates promising clinical performance on a variety of samples. This was a retrospective clinical evaluation, and performance is likely to be enhanced through a prospective analysis of clinical validity and by determining clinical utility.

Remote nanoparticle detection is required for the development of in situ biological probes. Here we describe the labelling of silver nanoparticles to produce multiply coded particles which can be detected by surface enhanced resonance Raman scattering (SERRS). There is a potential for thousands of codes to be written and read without the need for spatial resolution of components of the code. The use of these systems in bioanlaysis and in situ detection is discussed.

We report the use of silver hydroxylamine nanoparticles functionalised with single stranded monothiolated DNA for the detection of fungal infections. The four different species of fungi that were targeted were Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Candida krusei and Aspergillus fumigatus. Rational design of synthetic targets and probes was carried out by carefully analysing the 2-D folding of the DNA and then by global alignment of the sequences to ensure specificity. The effects of varying the concentrations of the DNA and dye surrounding the nanoparticles on the resultant surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) signal were also investigated to ensure compatibility of the probes in a multiplexed environment. Using principal components analysis (PCA) it was possible to detect the individual presence of each target and group them accordingly. The move to detect the C. krusei single stranded PCR product (ssPCR) was significant to demonstrate that the methodology could be employed for the detection and diagnosis of invasive fungal infections (IFDs) within a clinical setting. Initially the PCR product was subjected to an alkali shock method in order to separate the strands ready for detection using the nanoparticle probes system. This time 18 base probes were employed to enhance hybridisation efficiency and dextran sulfate was found to have a vital role in ensuring that detection of the C. krusei target was achieved. This demonstrated the use of DNA functionalised silver nanoparticle for the detection of clinically relevant DNA relating to a specific fungal infection and offers significant promise for future diagnostic applications.